教育部語信司—南京大學中國語言戰略研究中心主辦
中國語言學會語言政策與規劃專業委員會學術支持
主編：徐大明
執行主編：蔡冰
中國語言戰略
2018.2Volume 6
Number 2(2018)
China Language Strategies
國家“雙一流”建設學科“南京大學中國語言文學藝術”資助項目
江蘇省2011 協同創新中心“中國文學與東亞文明”資助項目
南京大學出版社
圖書在版編目（ＣＩＰ）數據中國語言戰略. 2018. 2 \/ 徐大明主編. —南京:
南京大學出版社, 2018.12
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圖書銷售部門聯係調換編輯委員會
顧問
陳章太程祥徽江藍生李宇明陸儉明孫宏開
主編
徐大明
執行主編
蔡冰
編審委員會
包智明曹誌耘戴慶廈德斯萬（Abram De Swaan）馮勝利
顧曰國郭熙黃行卡樂梅（Werner Kallemeyer）李嵬
李如龍李亞非梁長城劉丹青馬慶株屈哨兵施旭
石鋒汪維輝徐傑徐興無楊亦鳴遊汝傑袁毓林
張洪明張西平張玉來周薦朱曉農
編輯部成員
蔡冰戴思客（Scott Davis）方小兵葛燕紅彭馨葭楊立權出版說明《中國語言戰略》以語言規劃為主題，由教育部語信司指導，教育部語信司—南京大學中國語言戰略研究中心主辦。中國語言戰略研究中心成立於2007年，以推動和發展中國的語言規劃研究為宗旨。
語言規劃有助於引導語言生活向健康、和諧的方向發展，有助於保障個人或群體語言使用權益的充分實現，有助於促進國家統一、民族團結、社會穩定、經濟發展和文化進步，對於像我國這樣的多民族、多語言國家來說，意義尤其重大。
語言規劃學是一門新學科，但語言規劃的實踐活動卻曆史悠久。在我國，語言規劃的實踐可以追溯到秦始皇的“書同文”政策，其後各朝各代在社會語言文字使用方麵也不斷進行引導或幹預。新中國成立後，語言文字工作成為政府工作的一個重要組成部分。改革開放以來，特別是新世紀以來，語言文字工作進入了一個新的階段。與此同時，我國的語言規劃研究也逐步開展起來。
世界範圍內，現代科學意義上的語言規劃研究始於二次世界大戰以後，我國學者緊跟時代步伐、順應社會需要，開展了一係列具有劃時代意義的語言文字工作。老一輩語言學家羅常培、王力、呂叔湘、周有光等，肩負起知識分子的曆史使命和社會責任，在推動、促進文字改革，推廣普通話和現代漢語規範化方麵發揮了重要的作用，為我們樹立了優秀的榜樣。通過幾代人的不斷努力，語言規劃研究已經初步形成了一個學科體係。
語言規劃學是一門學術性和政策性、理論性和應用性兼重的學科，它的研究融語言學研究成果與國家、民族和社會的發展於一體，不僅進行理論研究，而且力圖影響國家和政府的語言政策和語言文字工作。目前，國際上語言規劃的研究已有重要的發展，也創辦了一些有影響的專業期刊，如：1977年創刊的《語言問題和語言規劃》（Language Problems and Language Planning），2000年創刊的《語言規劃的當前問題》（Current Issues in Language Planning）和2002年創刊的《語言政策》（Language Policy）等。隨著中國社會的發展，創辦一種以中國語言規劃為主要研究對象、以中文讀者為主要讀者群的專業集刊也成為迫切的需求，《中國語言戰略》就是對這一需求做出的反應。
遵循中國語言戰略研究中心的宗旨，《中國語言戰略》積極推動語言規劃和語言政策的理論研究，促進適應中國國情的語言規劃理論和語言規劃學科的產生。在研究內容方麵，《中國語言戰略》主要關注中國社會所麵臨的種種語言問題，以及這些語言問題在政治、經濟、教育、文化等領域中產生的影響。《中國語言戰略》強調運用科學的方法，對語言現象和語言生活進行描寫、分析和解釋，在引進和借鑒國外的理論和經驗的同時，以中國語言規劃的實踐和研究豐富和發展語言規劃學的理論和方法。
在語言規劃研究領域，語言戰略研究是中國學者率先開展的新研究方向，是語言學與戰略研究的結合，體現了應用驅動的理論創新。《中國語言戰略》因此著重展現語言戰略研究的新成果。我們熱切地邀請海內外的學界同仁一起開展語言戰略研究；讓我們放眼世界、展望未來，為建設中國和世界的語言新環境而努力。
《中國語言戰略》2012年卷由上海譯文出版社出版，自2015年卷本起，出版工作由南京大學出版社承擔。《中國語言戰略》在組稿和審稿過程中得到了海內外學者的熱情支持和幫助，在此表示誠摯的謝意。中國語言戰略目錄目錄·特稿·
The Management of Chinese Identity through Mandarin in Malaysian Chinese Schools
Wang Xiaomei （1）
·語言變異·
語言景觀視角下泰國華語使用及其變異祝曉宏（19）
伊川方言處置句變異的社會製約因素劉雅蘭孫德平（30）
言語禮貌的代際感知差異調查與分析
——以致謝行為為例 王玲任娟娟（39）
語篇變異的多維性周明強（52）
第二語言變異的影響因素和研究重點郭茜（60）
·城市語言調查·
城市發展視角下的路名規劃研究
——以西安市雁塔區為例董洪傑王亞棟（67）
珠三角地區本地青少年語言生活狀況調查
——以東莞為例張斌華（76）
·語言教育·
“一帶一路”背景下非通用語專業人才培養思考：以尼泊爾語為例
蔣義錚楊通銀邢雲（89）
·書評·
《認知社會語言學框架》述評完權（100）
《多語環境下的母語建構與母語社區規劃研究》述評
張道升（107）
·簡訊·
“語言認同與語言規劃暨南京大學社會語言學實驗室成立15周年學術研討會”紀要
（112）
“一帶一路”背景下漢語國際教育與語言服務戰略國際學術研討會在美國舉行（114）
《中國140種語言百科全書》在美國出版（115）
Contents（116）
中國語言戰略The Management of Chinese Identity through Mandarin in Malaysian Chinese Schools·特稿·
The Management of Chinese Identity through
Mandarin in Malaysian Chinese Schools
Wang Xiaomei
Abstract: This paper aims to discuss the interrelationship between Chinese identity and the management of Mandarin and Chinese education in Malaysia. Adopting the identity management framework （Marboob， 2015） and language management framework （Spolsky， 2009）， this paper analyzes how Chinese identity is strengthened through language management in four Chinese schools in the State of Penang， Malaysia. The data are collected through facetoface interviews with school management teams， teachers and students. In total， 24 subjects are interviewed. The findings show that Chinese identity is associated with the language planning measures towards Mandarin in the two types of Chinese schools （Independent Chinese Secondary Schools and Nationaltype Chinese Secondary Schools）. Moreover， both teachers and students hold similar perceptions about the importance of Mandarin and its significance to Chinese identity. The paper concludes that the management of Chinese identity through Mandarin in Chinese schools conforms to the norm of the Chinese community against the backdrop of multilingualism and multiculturalism in Malaysia.
Key words: Chinese identity； Chinese schools； language management； Mandarin， Malaysia
1. Introduction
Education， as pointed out by Spolsky （2009）， is one of the most powerful forces for language planning. In most circumstances， the language associated with the national identity will be given priority in schools as most schools “work towards uniformity and monolingualism in the approved variety associated with literacy” （Spolsky， 2009）. Given that multilingual schooling is rare， how students of minority origin maintain their identity within the mainstream education remains a research interest for sociolinguists. Coulmas （2005） claimed that linguistic identity is “to some extent at least， a social construct， a matter of choice”. Some minority groups abandon their language and shift to the dominant language whereas some minority groups insist on maintaining their language in the home domain and education domain as much as possible. The different choices made by minorities may lie in their beliefs in the link between language and ethnic identity （Coulmas， 2005） or their real efforts in upholding their languages within and beyond their community. To understand the complex relationship among language， identity and education， this paper provides a successful case of Chinese Malaysians who strive to maintain Chinese language and identity through Chinese schooling.
The interrelationship among language， identity and education in the Malaysian context has drawn scholars attention from the fields of education （Lopez， 2014）， political science （Collins， 2006）， second language acquisition （Lee， 2003）， and language planning （Gill， 2005）. Particularly， the association between Mandarin and Chinese identity in this multiethnic and multicultural country has become a hot topic in Malaysia due to the fact that Mandarin is extensively spoken by Chinese Malaysians （Wang， 2012） and it is regarded as a symbol of Chinese identity （Siah， et al. 2015）. In the Malaysian context， identity mainly refers to ethnic identity when minority groups are involved in discussion. As a diasporic community， the issue of language and identity of Chinese Malaysians has been always interwoven with education. This is because Chinese education is perceived as one of the three pillars of Malaysian Chinese society together with Chinese press and Chinese guilds and associations （Thock， 2009） and Chinese schools represent the last bastion for transmission of Chinese identity to future generations （Collins， 2006）. The uniqueness of Chinese Malaysians in maintaining their language and constructing their identity through the use of Mandarin is manifested more obviously when compared with other Chinese communities. Wong and Tan （2017） investigated linguistic constructions of Chinese ethnicity of three groups of Chinese—Chinese Malaysians， Chinese Singaporeans， and mainland Chinese—through questionnaires and reported that Chinese Malaysians ranked the first for the items of perceived importance of Mandarin Chinese to “beingChinese” in general and perceived importance of Mandarin Chinese to Chinese identity in particular. This indicates that Chinese Malaysians have shown a strong ethnic identity in which language is a core component. The high degree of language maintenance and strong language identity among the Chinese community is partially attributed to the success of Chinese education in Malaysia. As Lopez （2014） advocated in his article on language， education， and national unity in Malaysia， “to allow instruction in the vernacular was a wise one”. By saying “vernacular”， he meant the education at the primary school level in Mandarin and Tamil. The existence of Chinese and Tamil schools in Malaysia not only satisfies the needs of language identity of Chinese and Indian Malaysians， but also provides advantages for Malaysia in the global market with “the abundance of educated Mandarin and Tamil speakers” （Lopez， 2014）.
As will be introduced in the following section of the paper， the Chinese education in Malaysia has actually played an important role in consolidating Chinese identity and promoting Chinese culture. Siah et al. （2015） examined the perception of Chinese values by Chinese students from two different streams in the state of Perak， national schools where Malay is the main medium of instruction and Chinese Independent Schools where Mandarin is the main teaching medium. They found out that students from both streams practiced their Chinese cultural values through the use of Chinese language. As pointed out by Lopez （2014）， both Chinese and Indians strive for the preservation of their schools as they believe in bahasa jiwa bangsa （“language is the soul of the race”） as Malays do. The Chinese educationalists in Malaysia are regarded as the defenders of Chinese identity （Collins， 2006）. In their perception， Chinese schools are the transmitter of Chinese language and culture， which are essential for Chinese identity. The strong relationship between language， education and identity is also felt by Englishspeaking Chinese who seem to be marginalized because they do not speak Mandarin （Lee， 2003）. Although the current literature has shown the close relationship among Chinese language， education and identity， it seems that few studies have been done to look into how Chinese identity is managed in schools through the use of Mandarin and other language planning measures （cf. Lee & Ting， 2016; Lee， Ting & Lo， 2017 among others）. Furthermore， the differences between nationaltype schools and Chinese independent schools in terms of language and identity management are not covered in previous studies. Against this background， the current study is aimed to answer the following research questions: （a） What are the language practices and management measures in relation to Mandarin in both types of schools? （b） How is Chinese identity managed through the use of Mandarin in both types of schools? （c） Is there any difference in terms of language and identity management between the two types of schools?2. The framework of identity management and the framework of language managementMahboob （2015） proposed a framework of identity management（FIM） when he analyzed how the conforming identities of the students are managed through the English language textbooks in Pakistan. In this framework， identity management is defined as any institutionalized or localized effort to shape or direct individual or group identities （Mahboob， 2015）. The shaped identities can be normconforming or contesting the norms. Individuals sociocultural positioning is done at two levels: microlevel and macrolevel （see Figure 1）. The former is realized through the interaction with individuals or groups of people. The latter is done through institutionalized processes （see Figure 1， Mahboob， 2015）. The two dimensions of identity management are illustrated in Figure 1， which can be promoting a conforming sociocultural position at a macro level or a micro level， or promoting a contesting identity through institution process or individual interaction. In the current study， the context of interaction is the education domain， which is an important institution where official language policy is supposed to be in practice. Therefore， a normconforming identity should be promoted and predicted in schools. However， the real situation is much more complicated， especially in a context of multiethnic and multicultural society where different types of schools coexist.
As far as Malaysia is concerned， as will be introduced in the next section， primary schools are categorized along the line of ethnic groups and ethnic languages， being Malay schools using Malay as main medium of instruction （MOI）， Chinese schools with Mandarin as MOI， and Tamil schools with Tamil as MOI. At the secondary school level， such segment is replaced by a more unified education system， which employs Malay as MOI. However， there are still secondary schools which were transformed from Chinese schools in the 1960s and therefore have a strong Chinese tradition on campus. Those which rejected the subsidy of the government in the 1960s are known as Independent Chinese Secondary Schools （ICSS）， still using Mandarin as MOI today. In these two types of schools， most students are ethnic Chinese， learning three languages in their syllabus， Malay， English， and Chinese. In schools， they interact with Chinese peers and teachers from different ethnic groups， speaking at least three languages. Each language is associated with an identity. Malay is the symbol of national identity while Mandarin is reserved for the Chinese identity and English is regarded as an international language with a neutral identity. Multiple identities are the norm in the Malaysian context （Lee， 2003）. In Wong and Tans （2017） survey， 65% of Chinese Malaysians speak three or four languages， which is the actual experience of language in their everyday life. In the broader social context， the Chinese community is also a multilingual entity with Mandarin as the common language within the community and Malay and English as the lingua franca across ethnic groups. With regards to identity， Chinese Malaysians have shown strong Chinese identity along with national identity. In the education domain， the national identity should be highlighted through teaching and learning. In the Malaysian context， in addition to the emphasis on national identity， ethnic identity also needs to be managed especially in ICSS and nationaltype （Chinese） secondary schools. Different from monoethnic societies， the norm which the schools follow is actually conforming to that of the Chinese community.
The framework of language management （FLM） （Spolsky， 2009） consists of three components: language practice， language beliefs， and language management. Language practices refer to the observable linguistic behaviors and language choices in different domains; language beliefs are a set of beliefs about language itself and its usage in the society; language management is “the explicit and observable effort by someone or some group that has or claims authority over the participants in the domain to modify their practices or beliefs” （Spolsky， 2009）. In Spolskys words， all the three components are interrelated and can account for language choice in a certain speech community （Spolsky， 2009）. Spolsky elaborates his framework by analyzing various domains where language management takes place， such as family， religion， workplace， public space， schools， courts and health institutions， military， government， and supranational institutions. Among these domains， education is a primary one. Students language choice and practice， to a great extent， are influenced by teachers language belief and practice in classrooms. The school principal and other administrators are also very important as they are powerful in deciding language policy on campus. Adopting the framework of language management， the current study will look into the means of language management in two types of Chinese schools， focusing on how Mandarin Chinese is managed through school language policy and how teachers and students perceive the status and role of Mandarin Chinese. The unique feature of these schools is that they promote Mandarin， a language without any official status in Malaysia， which is associated closely with the Chinese identity and culture. It is particularly of significance to investigate how these schools achieve the goal of maintaining Mandarin and consolidating students Chinese identity while teaching the prescribed syllabus of the government which emphasizes the use of Malay， the national language， and the consolidation of the Malaysian identity.
The above two frameworks are applied in the current study explaining how the Chinese identity is managed through Mandarin in Chinese schools. The analysis of results is organized in the following way: language management in the two types of schools will be reported first as it may impact on language practices and beliefs. The management of Chinese identity through Mandarin is mainly focused on the institutions level. The managed identity will then be examined whether it is conforming to or contesting the social norms in the current context. The combined framework is illustrated in Figure 2. Mandarin is the core of the combined framework， which is the symbol of Chinese identity. Language management towards Mandarins in schools will be highlighted in the analysis. Identity management will be analyzed using the interview data on the perception of the role of Mandarin in Chinese identity， which is part of interviewees language beliefs. 3. Nationaltype Chinese Secondary Schools and Independent Chinese Secondary SchoolsTwo types of Chinese schools are examined in the current study， Nationaltype Chinese Secondary Schools （NTCSS） and Independent Chinese Secondary Schools （ICSS）. NTCSS is part of the national education system using Malay as the main medium of instruction. In fact， after Education Act 1996 was enacted， NTCSS was integrated into national schools and lost its special status. However， the Chinese community disagreed with this change as these schools are different from national schools in many aspects （UCSTAM， 2010）. NTCSS are regarded as Chinese schools by the Chinese community based on the following facts: （1） Mandarin is a compulsory subject which is offered 5 periods per week in these schools， （2） Mandarin is mandatory for SPM （Malaysian Certificate of Education） exam， （3） Mandarin was the medium of instruction before they were converted into national schools in the 1960s， （4） the majority of students （about 90%） are ethnic Chinese， and （5） these schools have been promoting Chinese tradition and culture continuously on the campus （UCSTAM， 2010）. There are 78 such schools in the country with a total student population of 124916 in 2009 （UCSTAM， 2010）. Among them， ten schools are located in the state of Penang， where the current study is carried out. Chung Ling High School The website of Chung Ling High School is http:\/\/smjk.edu.my\/school\/index.php?schid=12. The website of Jit Sin High School is http:\/\/www.smjk.edu.my\/school\/index.php? schid=11. （student population 3 224 in 2017） and Jit Sin High School（student population 2 974 in 2016） are chosen as two research sites.
Independent Chinese Secondary Schools （ICSS） are private schools in Malaysia which do not receive any subsidy from the government. This type of school was established in the 1960s when they refused to change their medium of instruction from Mandarin to English （Tay， 2003）. Before they became ICSS， many schools had a long history in Malaysia. For instance， the Confucian Private Secondary School， Kuala Lumpur was established in 1906. Currently， there are 60 ICSSs across the country with a student population of 85 304 in 2017. These schools are managed by the United Chinese School Committees Association of Malaysia （UCSCAM or Dongzong）， which is in charge of curricular development of ICSS and the Unified Examination for Form 3 and Form 6 students. UCSCAM sets its vision as “ to lead the continuous development of Chinese education in Malaysia” and its mission as “to maintain and develop Chinese education， sustain and strive for equal status” （Dongzong website The website of Dongzong: http:\/\/www.dongzong.my\/aboutus.php. Retrieved on 1 Feb 2019.）. In ICSS， Mandarin is used as the main medium of instruction while English and Malay are two compulsory subjects. The students are mainly ethnic Chinese， graduates from Chinese primary schools where Mandarin is also the main medium of instruction. In Penang， there are 5 ICSSs. School C （student population， 2 000 in 2017） and School D （student population 2 090 in 2014） are the target schools of this study.
4. Methodology
The main method of this study is interview. Three groups of interviewees are covered， administrative personnel （N=6）， teachers （N=9）， and students （N=9）. The interview questions for these three groups of interviewees are slightly different but all focus on language use on campus and their attitudes towards Chinese， Malay， and English. Table 1 shows the distribution of these interviewees （N=24） in four schools， which are Jit Sin Independent High School， Han Chiang High School， Jit Sin High School （SMJK）， and Chung Ling High School （SMJK）. The first two schools are ICSSs There are 5 ICSSs in Penang and 2 schools are covered in this study. and the latter two are NTCSSs There are 10 NTCSSs in Penang and 2 schools are covered in this study.. Chung Ling High School and Han Chiang High School are located on the Penang Island while Jit Sin Independent High School and Jit Sin High School are on the Peninsula. Administrative staff include school headmasters， deputy headmasters and heads of academic department. Teachers are mainly language teachers who teach either Chinese， English or Malay and all of them are Chinese. Students are randomly chosen by their teachers who are all ethnic Chinese. All interviews were conducted on their campus in August 2013 We appreciate the assistance of these four Chinese schools when we carried out fieldwork in Penang. .
All interviews were recorded with a digital recorder and later transcribed in full texts （word count: 139 486）. In total， the interviews lasted about 85 hours. As to the language for interviews， Mandarin was used most of the time. With the teachers who did not understand Mandarin， English was spoken instead The interview with one English teacher was conducted in English as she did not speak any Chinese language.. The interview questions for administrative personnel were focused on language policy of the school and their perception of Mandarin， Chinese dialects， English and Malay. For teachers and students， questions on language practices on campus and perception of the three languages and Chinese dialects were asked. Table 1Three groups of interviewees
SchoolsAdministra
tive staffTeachersStudentsTotalJit Sin HS2327Han Chiang HS2125Jit Sin SMJK1225Chung Ling SMJK1337Total699245. Results
The results of the study are to be reported in three sections in order to answer the three research questions: （a） language practices and management measures in relation to Mandarin in both types of schools， （b） the management of Chinese identity in both types of schools， and （c） the differences between the two types of schools in terms of language and identity management.
5.1Language practices and management measures in relation to Mandarin
In this section， the measures of language planning towards the use of Mandarin by the two types of schools will be discussed. First of all， language use at administration meetings， weekly assembly and students extracurricular activities will be examined. Table 2 summarizes the language practices in both types of schools. For administration meetings， as NTCSSs are under the administration of the Ministry of Education （MOE） and Malay is the sole official language in Malaysia; Malay is the main language when headmasters All headmasters in NTCSS are ethnic Chinese who understand and speak Mandarin， which is a tradition but not a written policy in NTCSS （UCSTAM， 2010）. chair their administration meetings and minutes of these meetings must be written in Malay. When the staff at meetings are ethnic Chinese exclusively， Mandarin is an option. In contrast， as ICSSs are private schools which are not administered by MOE， they are more flexible in language use. When headmasters chair administration meetings， they mainly speak Mandarin. The only exception is that if the teachers do not understand Mandarin These teachers are most probably nonChinese or have no competence in Mandarin.， they will switch to English. Malay is least used in ICSSs. Weekly assembly is the gathering of students with headmasters and teachers every week when important announcements are made. The tradition for students weekly assembly in NTCSS in Penang is that Mandarin should be used as a way to promote Chinese language and culture. Therefore， in both Jit Sin SMJK and Chung Ling SMJK， the headmasters speak Mandarin to the students at weekly assemblies. If there is any important message for nonChinese staff， the headmasters may explain them in Malay. If the assembly falls in the SpeakingEnglish week， the headmasters will use English exclusively. In ICSS， Mandarin is almost exclusively used for weekly assembly. During the interviews with teachers and students， we asked about their language choice for cocurricular activities and found out that Mandarin is the main language in both ICSS and NTCSS.Table 2Language use at various occasions in
two types of schools
OccasionsICSSNTCSSadministrative meetingsMandarin and some EnglishMalay and some Mandarinweekly assemblyMandarinMandarin and some Malaystudents cocurricular activitiesMandarinMandarinBased on the above data， it can be seen that the use of Mandarin for students weekly assembly in NTCSS is a planned language choice which is regarded as one of the characteristics of NTCSS （UCSTAM， 2010）. In addition， all official notices or letters to students parents in NTCSS are written in two languages， Chinese and Malay （UCSTAM， 2010）. All these measures are to promote the use of Mandarin on campus as explained by the headmaster of Chung Ling SMJK， “This （Mandarin） is our Chinese tradition. We， the Chinese schools， therefore， should maintain this tradition. We must encourage our students to use Mandarin， especially inside schools.” For ICSS， the use of Mandarin for the above occasions is more natural as the medium of instruction is Mandarin for most subjects. Moreover， the maintenance of mothertongue education is treated as a mission for Chinese educationists. The headmistress of Han Chiang High School stated that to maintain the mothertongue education is their first mission and therefore Mandarin is extensively used for communication on campus.