Partly due to Veronicas selfimposed confinement， her refusal to enter into adulthood and to connect to others， and partly due to Bens adherence to the ideology of domesticity and the ideal of femininity， in the end， Veronica and Ben fail to understand and save each other in their marriage. Veronica retains her past way of an isolated life even after her marriage， whereas Ben falls back into his addiction to alcohol. The couple give birth to a stunted child that symbolizes the destined failure in their union. Veronica is lying on the floor watching her yearold baby. It smiles continually， but never cries， never moves， except when it is moved. Her face， thin and melancholy， is still calm and lovely. But her eyes go no more in quest of something beyond. A wall of darkness lies before her， which she will not penetrate. Aunt Merce sits near me with her knitting. When I look at her I think how long it is since mother went， and wonder whether death is not a welcome idea to those who have died. Aunt Merce looks at Verry and the child with a sorrowful countenance， exchanges a glance with me， shakes her head. If Verry speaks to her， she answers cheerfully， and tries to conceal the grief which she feels when she sees the mother and child together. (252)The child is underdeveloped and undernourished. It is emotionally crippled at birth. Veronicas eating disorder and Bens drinking addiction could be the causes. In the novel Veronica determines her own life course， but her choice is not without problems. Sybil Weir thinks that “[b]ecause of her refusal to immerse herself in life， Veronica dies spiritually at the novels end” (430). With the tragic ending， Stoddard suggests that the path of avoiding maturity and clinging to isolation does not necessarily liberate a woman or offer her a feasible solution to achieve her independence. Marriage cannot cure a woman of her rejection of growth and maturity.
Readers may find Veronicas character morbid， and indeed some critics and even friends from Stoddards literary circle at the time found her novel disturbing. Mahoney explains： “Stoddard clearly preferred a literature of strong emotions and passion， and she admired works that explored the ‘extremes of the human heart， its morbid passions and sufferings’” (21). Stoddard stresses that she wants to write about the truth， therefore， the portrayal of Veronica shows the authors determination of presenting characters as originally and truthfully as she can.
In conclusion， the experiences of women characters in The Morgesons and Elizabeth Stoddards personal quest on the journey for artisthood inform readers of womens struggles against the entrapment imposed by a patriarchal society through such notions as the feminine ideal and the emphasis on domesticity for women in the midnineteenth century America. Although the society remained largely patriarchal， women of that era made huge efforts to break the confinement and to seek selfdevelopment. Whether the protagonist in The Morgesons has truly broken free from her entrapment is debatable， but Stoddard raises the themes of free will and autonomy for women in her works， and these themes are further explored by later women writers， such as Kate Chopin， in their works. 邵Chapter Three
Chapter ThreeFemale Entrapment and the
Institution of Marriage： Kate
Chopins The AwakeningThe far， faint voice of a woman， I heard，
Twas but a wail， and it spoke no word.
It rose from the depths of some infinite gloom
And its tremulous anguish filled the room.
Yet the woman was dead and could not deny，
But women forever will whine and cry.
—Kate Chopin， from “The Haunted Chamber”Kate Chopin， The Complete Works of Kate Chopin， 734.This chapter will explore the theme of female entrapment in the personal life and works of Kate Chopin. The term “female entrapment” understood in this book describes a dilemma faced by women where they are uncomfortable and unfulfilled both inside and outside mens houses， what， I argue， is the principle marker of a hegemonic patriarchal order in the period in question. This chapter argues that Chopins works testify to this dilemma faced by women in late nineteenthcentury America. The situation was， I argue， particularly severe for women of the uppermiddleclass， who felt entrapped both within and without the confines of this patriarchal domestic sphere. Compared with Stoddards The Morgesons， the intensity of entrapment felt by the protagonist in Chopins The Awakening appears stronger. Chopin explores the theme of female entrapment in The Awakening mainly from the perspective of marriage and she adopts an ambivalent stance on this themeStoddard and Wharton have also touched upon the theme of marriage in their works， but they have not examined it in such depth as Chopin does in The Awakening. I think the three writers， to a certain degree， have all been ambivalent about the choice of marriage， and its positive and negative impacts on their women characters. Stoddard holds a more positive attitude toward marriage compared with Chopin， whereas Wharton mainly views marriage as a means of survival for her protagonist who is from a lower class. in that she has intentionally not provided a satisfactory solution to the problem for her protagonists.
Ever since the revival of interestI will explain the literary receptions of The Awakening in the section “Chopin and Anxiety of Female Authorship”. in Kate Chopin and The Awakening in the late 1960s， critics have analysed the novel in various ways. Many of them look at the novel from the perspective of female sexualityThere are many discussions regarding gender and sexuality. For example， Claire Colebrook in Gender explains the differences between gender and sexuality as： “There are today， in general， two competing accounts of gender. The first is the explanation from sexuality. There are two types of biological body—male and female—that are then socialised and represented through certain stereotypes or images： gender is the social construction of sex... . The second account is the explanation from culture. There are， in fact， no essential differences， but societies order the world into male and female oppositions. Sexuality is meaningless， complex and bears none of the binary simplicity that characterises gender. It is gender—or cultural differentiation into kinds—that allows us to think of distinctly different bodies” (9). In Taking Sides： Clashing Views in Gender， Jacquelyn W. White explains gender and sexuality as follows： “Many contemporary scholars view sexuality as a cultural construction. Cultures provide individuals with knowledge and ‘lenses’ that structure institutions， social interactions， beliefs， and behaviors. Through cultural lenses or meaning systems， individuals perceive the ‘facts’ of sex and gender. Conceptualizations of sex and gender and the importance of sex and gender as social categories vary from culture to culture” (311).. For example， Per Seyersted and others perceive the novels stance on womans sexuality as pioneering and daring instead of corrupting， as suggested by critics in the past： “She was something of a pioneer in the amoral treatment of sexuality” (Seyersted 198). The novel certainly can be understood in terms of womans sexuality；In this book， I view sexuality as a subcategory under gender. Sexuality emphasizes more on the biological aspect， whereas gender emphasizes both the biological and cultural aspects. If one solely looks at The Awakening from the perspective of sexuality， one may miss other significant issues， such as autonomy， authenticity and selffulfilment， all of which Chopin has paid great attention to in her works. nevertheless， if one solely looks through the lens of female sexuality， one may overlook other important aspects. To avoid concentrating solely on the theme of female sexuality， there are also critics who adopt other approaches to the study of the novel. In recent collections of critical essays on Chopins works， such as Blooms Modern Critical Views： Kate Chopin—Updated Edition (2007)， and The Cambridge Companion to Kate Chopin (2008)， editors have included a number of critical essays on Chopin from a variety of angles. For example， Susan Castillo looks at race and ethnicity in Chopins fictions， while Maureen Anderson looks at Chopins works from the angle of Southern pastoral tradition.
In terms of the theme of female entrapment， there have also been a number of critics who look at The Awakening from this angle. Tracing back chronologically， in 1956 Kenneth Eble briefly mentions the confinement of the protagonist in her marriage in The Awakening. In 1992 Dorothy H. Jacobs looks at the theme of confinement by comparing The Awakening with Ibsens plays such as A Dolls House and Heddar Gabler. In 2003 A. Elizabeth Elz approaches the theme of female entrapment through the metaphor of birds used in the novel， and compares the novel with A Lost Lady by Willa Cather. In this book， the theme of female entrapment will be looked at in a comprehensive manner. The forms of female entrapment will be considered as multifaceted， and will be extended to both the public and private spheres.I will explain the public and private spheres in detail in later sections (starting from p.94). The public sphere includes the scarcity of life options available for women， the institution of marriage， and the notion of “a room of ones own”； and the private sphere includes bodily sensations， mental illness， and womans biology. The value of this research lies in the depth at which the theme of female entrapment will be analysed.
The aim of the chapter is to answer three major questions in relation to the idea of female entrapment. First， I would like to explore whether Chopin， as a woman author， has ever felt entrapped in her life in regard to her goal of achieving artisthood. Second， I will examine various forms of entrapment imposed on women characters in her novel The Awakening. Finally， I will look for solutions offered in the novel to free women characters from their entrapment. The three questions will allow us to better understand the literary theme of female entrapment in late nineteenthcentury America.
To understand the idea of female entrapment， we need to first of all examine the notion of Victorian femininityIn this book， “Victorian femininity”， “the ideal Victorian woman”， and “Victorian womanhood” are used interchangeably to refer to the same idea. or the ideal femininity in the nineteenth century， which gives rise to the dilemma of female entrapment in nineteenthcentury America. The ideal image of Victorian womanhood is closely linked to the image of “the angel in the house”. Historically speaking, the image of “the angel in the house” stems originally from one poem written by Coventry Patmore in 1854.The poem was first published in 1854， and later was revised in 1862. Patmore considers his wife Emily to be the perfect example of a Victorian woman， and lists her virtues such as purity， passivity， innocence， selflessness， and meekness in his poem “The Angel in the House”. For example， “She leans and weeps against his breast， And seems to think the sin was hers.”Retrieved from http：\/\/www.victorianweb.org\/authors\/patmore\/angel\/9.html on Sept. 21， 2010. In her book Passion and Pathology in Victorian Fiction， Jane Wood notes that the very title of Patmores poem， “The Angel in the House”， “crystallized the idealizations into the familiar stereotype” (9).
The idealization of Victorian womanhood can be understood on two levels. First， it encompasses virtues expected of Victorian women. “Woman， Victorian society dictated， was to be chaste， delicate， and loving” (SmithRosenberg 65). The quality of purity is strongly emphasized. “Nineteenthcentury thinking and writing about women is informed by the idea of feminine purity” (Mitchell x). Similarly， Ronald Waters also describes the Victorian woman as “asexual”， “icily aloof from all dangerous impulses， loomed like a whiteclad mountain amid the worlds moral debris” (65).
It should be noted that the women who failed to follow the above notion of Victorian femininity would be condemned. “[M]odesty， timidity and selflessness were claimed on the one hand to be essential parts of womens natures， and women who violated these claims were called unfeminine and unnatural” (Jordan 53). Ellen Jordan explains that for middleclass Victorian women， “[i]f they hoped to maintain an image of themselves as ‘ladies’， or even as ‘true’ women， they had to accept the sphere defined for them by the myth， and live within its prescriptive boundaries， no matter how high the price paid” (Jordan 5556).Jordans argument leads one to reflect upon the sense of anxiety and feeling of entrapment if a woman was uncomfortable or unwilling to follow the Victorian notion of femininity. Moreover， Jordan touches upon an important idea for Victorian society， i.e. the separate spheres for men and women.
Secondly， the idealization of Victorian womanhood glorifies the roles of wives and mothers for women. The idealization of the “angel in the house” serves the very purpose of setting separate spheres for the two genders. Jane Wood notes that “[t]he idealization of woman as the morally pure， passive， ‘angel in the house’ worked to make a virtue of a society prescription and thereby served an expedient need... contributing to the formulation of what was perhaps the most powerful and pervasive stereotype supporting the strategic notion of separate spheres” (9). British writer Anna Jameson summarized the virtue of woman in 1843 as： “Her sphere is home， her vocation the maternal...she is the refiner and the comforter of man； it is hers to keep alive all those purer， gentler， and more genial sympathies” (Jordan 51). Jordan argues that Victorian women were created as noble and angelic beings for the “purpose of serving husband and family” (52). The role as wife for Victorian woman is highly stressed and glorified. “A woman is nobody unless she be a lady. This was the role that Victorians assigned to the female sex...Americans expected women to reign at home...She was homemaker as well as culture giver， but first and last she was loving and beloved wife” (Filene 78). So what about women who were not comfortable with the roles of wives and mothers? What if a woman aspired for more outside her household in Victorian America? These questions can lead to the possible situation of female entrapment in late nineteenthcentury America.
To sum up， in this book the notion of Victorian womanhood is understood in terms of the virtues and roles required on the part of women. Jane Wood gives a good account as follows： “The idealized image of the ‘angel in the house’ gave rise to numerous variations on the enclosed space， the inner sanctum which both preserved womans moral purity and ensured her dedication to the appointed task of service and humility” (23). Wood touches upon the idea of “the enclosed space” associated with the image of “angel in the house”. “The enclosed space” can be understood as restrictions caused by the separate spheres for the two genders. Pointing out that Patmores poem of “the Angel in the House” “provided a name for the ideal， allencompassing image of Victorian womanhood which combined the perfection of purity， spirituality， love and beauty”， Siv Jansson also notes that the image of the angel “has， however， also come to represent submission， immobility and confinement” (31). Both Wood and Jansson here point to the important connection between the image of the angel in the house and the confinement it renders for women in terms of enclosed space and stifled autonomy.
In early twentieth century， British writer Virginia Woolf wrote an essay attacking the idealized image of the angel in the house. Woolf describes the image of the angel in the house in her essay “Professions for Women” (1931) as follows：She was immensely charming. She was utterly unselfish. She excelled in the difficult arts of family life. She sacrificed herself daily. If there was chicken， she took the leg； if there was a draught she sat in it—in short she was so constituted that she never had a mind or a wish of her own， but preferred to sympathize always with the minds and wishes of others. Above all—I need not say it—she was pure. Her purity was supposed to be her chief beauty—her blushes， her great grace. In those days—the last of Queen Victoria—every house had its Angel.Retrieved from http：\/\/s.spachman.tripod.com\/Woolf\/professions.htm on Sept. 21， 2010.Woolf attacks the idealized image of Victorian woman， and claims in her essay that she tries her best to kill the angel in the house. Hence she famously claims： “Killing the Angel in the House was part of the occupation of a woman writer”. What Woolf essentially says is to liberate women in general from the stereotypes of “the angel in the house”， and to give them opportunities so that there can be women writers and artists emerging from the female population. By “killing the angel in the house”， Woolf hopes to liberate women from their confinement， and to encourage and nurture women artists. Woolf therefore sees the notion of perfect Victorian womanhood glorified by Patmore as cumbersome and destructive to younger generations of women.
In their book The Madwoman in the Attic， Susan Gubar and Sandra Gilbert also touch upon the image of the angel in the house. Different from Woolf who is writing about women in general， Gubars and Gilberts argument mainly centres on literary women. Apart from mentioning the angel in the house， they have also stress its opposite image： the mad woman in the attic. According to Gubar and Gilbert， both images are extreme and are products of the male texts. In other words， neither of the two images is acceptable or truthful in depicting a womans individuality. Gilbert and Gubar， therefore， emphasize the importance of literature written by women that challenge the stereotype of the angel in the house.
In their book， Gilbert and Gubar also stress the idea of female entrapment or confinement. They argue that in the nineteenth century women artists are trapped in mens housesTheir fathers or husbands houses. and in the institution of patriarchy； therefore， “[d]ramatizations of imprisonment and escape are so allpervasive in nineteenthcentury literature by women that we believe they represent a unique female tradition in this period” (8586). They also point out that women writers tend to use houses as primary symbols of female imprisonment： “heroines who characteristically inhabit mysteriously intricate or uncomfortable stifling houses are often seen as captured， fettered， trapped， even buried alive” (83). In Gilbert and Gubars book， “entrapment” and “confinement” are used interchangeably to refer to the condition that women writers or their female characters are robbed of their freedom and become trapped physically in mens houses， psychologically under patriarchy， and literally in the male texts. Gilbert and Gubars argument and definition of female entrapment provide theoretical support and guidance for this book.
In this chapter， Gilbert and Gubars argument on female entrapment will be applied to examine Kate Chopins works. I argue that Chopins works testify to the dilemma faced by women whereby they feel entrapped both within and without the confines of a patriarchal domestic sphere in late nineteenthcentury America. Chopins ambivalent stance on providing the solution to end female entrapment reflects the complex nature of this dilemma. In addition， The Awakening will be linked to Chopins short stories， and will be related to two other women writers works， i.e. those of Stoddard and Wharton， to further explore and understand the theme of female entrapment in the works by American women writers from the period of postbellum to World War I.
Ⅰ. Chopin and the Anxiety of
Female AuthorshipThis section aims at answering the first question：has Chopin， as a woman author， ever felt entrapped in her life in regard to her goal of achieving artisthood? As mentioned earlier， Gubar and Gilbert emphasize the link between women authors private lives and their literary works. They argue that women writers of the nineteenth century often had to struggle to preserve their independent will and creativity； and some women writers projected their own sense of entrapment and anxiety onto their female characters in their literary works. So in the case of Kate Chopin， has she ever felt hampered or entrapped by this maledominated literary background in which the Victorian notion of womanhood still prevailed? Has she projected her own feeling of anxiety and entrapment onto her literary creations?
Ann Douglas Wood notes that in nineteenthcentury America it was considered unladylike for women to aspire to selfexpression through writing， therefore， women writers often had to mask their ambition： “In masking and hallowing their activity， these women writers reached the paradoxical point where， by a mysterious transmutation， they were somehow hardly writing at all” (Wood 7). Nancy Walker explains the conservative notion of true womanhood in nineteenth century as being “timid”， “dependent”， “instinct” and “childlike” (9). Economic necessity， therefore， was the better and more acceptable excuse for womens literary endeavours. To put it another way， to aspire to literary immortality was still not encouraged on the part of women.I have written about the literary background for women writers in nineteenthcentury America in detail in the chapter on Elizabeth Stoddard. Women writers often had to hide their artistic ambitions.
Around midnineteenth century when Kate Chopin was born， the position of the woman writer was something of a paradox. On the one hand， many popular novels were written by women； on the other hand， however， there was still a stigma attached to a woman writer.Refer to the chapter on Elizabeth Stoddard. As it is mentioned earlier in the chapter on Elizabeth Stoddard， “[b]y the 1850s， indeed， when women writers were producing most of the bestselling fiction， their work was deplored as a popular dilution of a truly virile American art” (Showalter 12). There was anxiety about women who dedicated themselves wholeheartedly to art and consequently neglected their essential responsibilities as wives and mothers. Walker observes that critics were on alert over “any evidence that a female author had overstepped the bounds of decorum” (14). Moreover， although women writers were sometimes praised for their creativity， most of them were not considered to be on an equal footing with male writers. In Kate Chopin： A Literary Life， Nancy Walker notes that in December of 1877， to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the Atlantic Monthly， many writers were invited to attend. However， among the guests， not a single woman was invited to the celebration， despite the fact that there were already a quite number of women writers， such as Louisa May Alcott， who had published their works in the Atlantic Monthly.
Elaine Showalter notes that in the 1870s， womens fiction “was a series of female Declarations of Independence” (166). In the 1890s， the phenomenon of the New Woman occurred. The New Woman sprang from womens activism at the time. The traditional woman was fulfilled by home and children， and she “merged her identity with that of her husband” (165)， the New Women， however， “rejected conventional female roles， redefined female sexuality， and asserted their rights to higher education and the professions” (Showalter 210). The New Woman asked for more opportunities and freedom for women outside the domestic sphere， and were concerned about acquiring autonomy for the new generation of women.
The New Woman challenges the traditional angelic image of woman being a selfless being， wholly devoted to the needs of others. The image of angel in the house “led to the idea of a woman being associated with an instinctive， wellnigh angelic devotion to the needs of others， and thus a moral ‘influence’ which elevated and refined those around her. So complete was her selflessness that some commentators were troubled by the very idea of feminine sexual desire” (Adams 8). In particular， the New Woman challenges the traditional sexual double standards. Showalter thinks that the New Womens attitudes toward female sexuality were revolutionary. She explains that while “most American New Women believed that men should be as sexually chaste as women， they also saw womens relative passionlessness as constructed rather than natural” (211). In fact， women novelists had written about the female passion a lot earlier than the emergence of the New Woman. Stoddard， for instance， touches upon the theme of female passion in her novel， The Morgesons， almost half a century before the advocacy of the New Woman.
By the time Chopin started to write， regional tales or sketches were quite popular， which provided her with ample room and opportunities for publishing. The term “local colour” stresses the careful “observation of everyday life， faithful delineation of real human experience， and sympathy for ordinary individuals” as demonstrated from the works of many women writers.Nancy Walker， Kate Chopin： A Literary Life， 18. Although Chopin and other writers of her generation benefitted from the great public demand for local colour stories， she did not wish to be considered solely as a local colourist.The reason will be explained in the later part of the chapter. Chopins response could stem from her hope for a wider audience and her fear of restricted understanding on her literary works.
Kate Chopins personal life sheds light on understanding her philosophy of life and her works. Surprisingly， though Chopin explores the theme of entrapment in her works， especially in regard to the restrictions imposed by marriage and motherhood on women in the late nineteenth century， her private life did not appear to suffer from such a contradiction， which leads one to wonder at the discrepancy between her private life and her literary creations.There are some similarities between Chopins personal life and the character of Edna Pontiller， therefore， The Awakening can be read as semiautobiographical. Her maiden name was Katherine OFlaherty， and she was born on February 8， 1851It is recorded as 1850 in books such as Kate Chopin： A Literary Life. in St. Louis， Missouri. Her father was a successful Irish businessman， and her mother was of French descent. Chopins father died of an accident when she was only five years old； therefore， she was practically raised in a household full of widowed women， consisting of her mother， grandmother， and great grandmother. French was used at her household， which explained Chopins familiarity with the language. The fluency in French later proved to be useful for expanding her literary horizon by enabling her to read the works of French writers firsthand.
Chopin attended Sacred Heart Academy in St. Louis when growing up. At school， she kept a commonplace book of quotations and diary entries. She wrote her first story， “Emancipation， A Life Fable”， before she was twenty years old. In June 1870 Chopin married the twentyfiveyearold Oscar Chopin， the son of a FrenchCreole family from “Natchitoches [Nakitush] Parish in northwestern Louisiana” (11)，Barbara C. Ewell， Kate Chopin， 11. and moved to New Orleans， where Oscar invested in the cotton business. Chopin fell in love with the city， and observed peoples lives there. She later used Louisiana as the background of many of her literary works， including The Awakening.
Chopin apparently gained much satisfaction from both her marriage and motherhood.Life with Oscar seemed happy for Chopin. In Chopins diary， she claimed to be very happy during her honeymoon. According to Per Seyersted， Chopin was very much in love with Oscar， and “she and her husband always preferred each other to other company” (38). Barbara Ewell also thinks that “by every account， Oscar and Kate were a fond and loving couple” (14). Chopin， the young wife， was “completely happy with her home， her husband， and in the eager expectation of ... her first child” (Seyersted 39). There is no account suggesting that Chopin did not enjoy motherhood. In her personal writing， Chopin described the birth of her child as： “The sensation with which I touched my lips and my fingers to his soft flesh only comes once to a mother. It must be the pure animal sensation； nothing spiritual could be so real—so poignant.”Per Seyersted， Kate Chopin： A Critical Biography， 40. Despite her satisfaction with marriage and motherhood， she nevertheless questions both in her literary works.
There is the suggestion that The Awakening was written based on some of the private experiences of the author. For example， Chopins preference for roaming in the streets and shunning the formal claims of the society also remind readers of Edna Pontellier， the protagonist in The Awakening. Although at the time womens freedom of movement was restricted， Chopin roamed in New Orleans unchaperoned. Chopin explained her attitude toward walking was as follows： “I always feel so sorry for women who dont like to walk； they miss so much—so many rare little glimpses of life； and we women learn so little of life on the whole.”Per Seyersted， Kate Chopin： A Critical Biography， 41. Chopins early biographer， Daniel Rankin， for example， thinks that although Chopin was completely happy with her marriage， she “continued her frustrated reasoning and that the shifting moods of Edna Pontellier of The Awakening are those of the author.”Per Seyersted， Kate Chopin： A Critical Biography， 39. In addition， after the death of her husband， Chopin was allegedly involved with a married man，Chopin developed “a romantic attachment to a prominent Cloutierville man” after her husbands death (Ewell 16). which may have provided her with material for writing on triangular relationships in The Awakening. Therefore， the novel in some sense can be read as semiautobiographical.
Different from Stoddard， it appears that Chopin did not go through the struggles between domestic duty and artistic aspiration experienced by the former a few decades earlier. From Kate Chopin： a Critical Biography by Per Seyersted， one learns that Chopin seemed content as a wife and mother， fulfilling domestic duties when her husband was alive， and harboured no thought of becoming a literary figure. It was after the death of her husband that she started to write short stories， primarily due to the strong encouragement of Dr. Kolbenheyer，Dr. Kolbenheyer is the family physician， and also a good friend of Kate Chopin. and partly motivated by the financial rewards from writing. But writing was never the main source of income for Chopin， and she did not have to rely on the money from publishing stories as Stoddard did.
Similar to Stoddard though， Chopin initially also lacked confidence in her own writing. In the beginning of her writing， she thought she had written “very diffidently” (52).Seyersted 52. Chopin considered her first productions “crude and unformed”， and hoped to “study to better her style” (52). It should be noted that Chopin did not find her obligations as a mother and hostess an obstacle to her writing. According to Seyersted， Chopin “preserved her emotional and intellectual independence” while attending to her numerous domestic duties and obligations (61).Chopin was a widower then， and made decisions on her own.
Chopin started to write short stories from 1888. She wrote dozens of short stories and sketches. Her works were published in magazines such as Atlantic Monthly， Vogue， and Harpers Youths Companion. Her major works were included in two short story collections Bayou Folk(1894) and A Night in Acadie (1895). Chopin also published two novels， although some biographers suggest that she had written a third novel which she later destroyed herself. At Fault was published in 1890 at her own expense； while her most controversial novel， The Awakening， was published in 1899.
Different from Stoddard who openly declared her literary ambition， Chopin， however， masked her literary aspiration. Chopins practice was not rare. Regarding that women writers in the past often resorted to masking their literary ambitions， Gubar and Gilbert explain： “If she refused to be modest， selfdeprecating， subservient， refused to present her artistic productions as mere stifles designed to divert and distract readers in moments of idleness， she could expect to be ignored or (sometimes scurrilously) attacked” (6162). Per Seyersted also offers another explanation for Chopins modesty. He thinks Chopin was raised with the Creole notion that publicity was a bad thing for a woman， and a woman should be satisfied with her home instead. Therefore， to the outsiders， Chopin was careful to present herself as a satisfied mother who often wrote short stories with the company and noises of her children and other family members in the livingroom. Whatever Chopins real motive was， the truth was she did have a study room of her own， and she took time to revise her works. Although not publicly professing her literary ambition， Chopin took art and her works seriously， and hoped very much that her books would succeed. “Kate Chopin did everything she could to further her local and national success， while retaining her womanly modesty and hiding her secret aspirations from everyone except Kobenheyer” (Seyersted 67). Similarly， from her research on Chopins life， Ewell concludes that “as a writer of considerable intellect and power， Chopin approached her work quite seriously， even when she had to mask that intent with indifference” (2122).
Before looking at The Awakening in depth， it is important to look at the critical reception of Chopins most important novel in the historical context. When The Awakening was first published in 1899， the critical reception at the time was horrible. Critics unanimously condemned the novel. For example， below is one review on the novel.Miss Kate Chopin is another clever woman， but she has put her cleverness to a very bad use in writing “The Awakening” (5). The purport of the story can hardly be described in language fit for publication...The worst of such stories is that they will come to the hands of youth， leading them to dwell on things that only matured persons can understand， and promoting unholy imaginations and unclean desires. It is nauseating to remember that those who object to the bluntness of our older writers will excuse and justify the gilded dirt of these later days.Alice Hall Petry， Critical Essays on Kate Chopin， 53.
—Reprinted from the Providence Sunday Journal， 4 June 1899， 15.The Awakening was generally viewed as a morally unhealthy book， and its protagonist， Edna Pontellier， received little sympathy. Due to the “unhealthy” content of the novel， Chopins reputation as a writer was tarnished.
Chopin obviously was frustrated and sad at such a reception. She later issued an explanation on defence of herself：Having a group of people at my disposal， I thought it might be entertaining (to myself) to throw them together and see what would happen. I never dreamed Mrs. Pontellier making such a mess of things and working out her own damnation as she did. If I had had the slightest intimation of such a thing I would have excluded her from the company. But when I found out what she was up to， the play was half over and it was then too late.Seyersted 176.Here， Chopins tone is sarcastic. Her statement was published in the August issue of BookNews； however， by the time， The Awakening had already been condemned nationally.Had she [Edna Pontellier] lived by Prof. William Jamess advice to do one thing a day one does not want to do (in Creole society， two would perhaps be better)， flirted less and looked after her children more， or even assisted at more accouchements—her chef doeuvre in selfdenial—we need not have been put to the unpleasantness of reading about her and the temptations she trumped up for herself.Petry 52.
—Reprinted from The Nation 69 (3 August 1899)： 96There were even rumours that for fear of the corrupting influence from The Awakening on the minds of young bourgeois housewives， the novel was banned and taken off the shelf in several states； and Chopin was shunned in the literary circle as well.“Social acquaintances and even some friends began to avoid her [Chopin]； the citys Mercantile Library reportedly banned the novel from its shelves； she was excluded from the St. Louis Fine Arts Club； and， in another possible rebuke， the Wednesday Club omitted her from its American Prose Writers Series， begun that fall” (Ewell 25). However， later biographers tend to dismiss such rumours.
Chopin did not write or publish much after the hostile reception of The Awakening. There is a theory among early biographersBiographies on Kate Chopin that were published before 1980s. that the hostile reviews had extinguished Chopins literary aspiration， and in effect silenced her pen. Commenting on past generations of women writers in general， Virginia Woolf writes： “What genius， what integrity it must have required in face of all that criticism， in the midst of that purely patriarchal society， to hold fast to the things as they saw it without shrinking” (112).“A Room of Ones Own” Although later critics on Chopin suggested that the hostile reviews had not been as damaging on Chopin as people previously imagined， Nancy Walker thinks that “[a]lthough the critical reception of The Awakening did not cause Chopins death， or even end her work as a writer， it delayed by at least half a century the wide readership that now attends her work” (27). Although it is unclear regarding the detrimental effect of hostile reviews on Chopin， she almost disappeared from public memory and readership for half a century. As for the main reason why Chopin was practically neglected and forgotten for the next half a century， Nancy Walker thinks that the frank treatment of the protagonists sexuality is the main reason for the ensuing silence on Chopin.
In the first half of the twentieth century， the only critical essay that focused on Kate Chopin in depth was a study done by Daniel Rankin in 1932.Daniel S. Rankins Kate Chopin and Her Creole Stories. In 1956 Kenneth Eble wrote “A Forgotten Novel： Kate Chopins The Awakening” and published it in Western Humanities Review 10， no. 3 (Summer 1956).Reprinted in Critical Essays on Kate Chopin. Eble comments on the novel as follows： “The nature of its [The Awakenings] theme， which had much to do with its adverse reception in 1899， would offer little offense today” (76). He therefore advocates for the restoration of The Awakening among “novels worthy of preservation” (82).
In the second half of the twentieth century， there is a revived interest in Chopins works. In 1969 Norwegian scholar Per Seyersted published two books on Chopin： Kate Chopin： a Critical Biography and The Completed Works of Kate Chopin.Per Seyersted is considered one of the most influential scholars on Chopin. Seyersted considered Chopin as a “rare， transitional figure in modern literature”， “a link between George Sand and Simone de Beauvoir” and “too much of a pioneer to be accepted in her time and place” (199). When the American critic， Emily Toth， published Unveiling Kate Chopin in 1999， celebrating one hundred years after the publication of The Awakening， Chopin was already being counted as among the first rank of American authors. The Awakening appeared on many college students reading lists. Chopins novel has become so widely read that it was even adapted into two motion pictures.
In sum， Chopin， as an author， had not suffered much from the pain and anxiety of conflicts between the roles of wife， mother， and artist， as Stoddard did. Nevertheless， she is not totally immune from the “anxiety of female authorship”. As mentioned above， she initially lacked confidence in her own writing， and she had to mask her ambition as a woman writer by resorting to her femininity.Chopin was careful to present the public with an image of a mother preoccupied with domesticity. The onesided disapproval of The Awakening certainly affected her as well. Chopin realizes that in her era women have to face and undergo the pains and confusions caused by their traditional roles as wives and mothers， and their yearnings for independence， free will， and creativity. She therefore carefully probes the issue that she deeply sympathizes with in her short stories and novels.It will be discussed in later sections on Chopins novel and short stories.
Ⅱ. Multifaceted Forms of Female
Entrapment in The AwakeningThis section aims at answering the second question： what are the forms of entrapment imposed on the women characters in the novel The Awakening? Perhaps few novels in nineteenth century America have depicted a womans yearning for freedom from the confinement imposed by society， family， and other factors more strongly than The Awakening. In this chapter， the suffocating sense of entrapment will be explored in terms of the public and the private spheres，I will explain the two spheres in later parts. and with the emphasis on the institution of marriage.
Public Sphere (Political Context) and Entrapment
In this section， the relationship between the public sphere and female entrapment will be looked at in terms of scarcity of life options available for women， the institution of marriage， and the notion of “a room of ones own” (physical space and economy) that I have dealt with also in relation to Stoddard. The protagonist is Edna Pontellier， a woman of twentyeight years old. She grew up in the old Kentucky bluegrass country. “She was an American woman， with a small infusion of French which seemed to have been lost in dilution” (6).Kate Chopin， The Awakening and Selected Short Stories of Kate Chopin， 6. Edna marries Léonce Pontellier， a fortyyearold business man of Creole background. The Pontelliers belong to the uppermiddle class， and have a comfortable home with servants in New Orleans. At the beginning of the novel Edna is a mother of two children of four and five years old.
The Scarcity of Life Options and Entrapment
On the theme of the scarcity of life options available for women， Chopin creates three types of women in her novel. Aside from Edna Pontellier， the protagonist of the novel， Chopin describes two other feminine types for her women characters. One devotes her life completely to marriage and motherhood， and this type is embodied by the character of Adèle Ratignolle. The last type devotes her energy completely to art， as in the case of Mademoiselle Reisz. Although both women characters offer insights into Ednas character regarding how she can live out her life， she eventually rejects both models of womanhood.From 1880 to 1920 in America， “womens major forms of employment were in the domestic and personal service industry”. By 1900， twenty percent of American women were employed. In other words， there are not many life options for women at the time (Bose 55).
Chopin describes Adèle Ratignolle in the novel as “motherwoman”， and she defines the phrase “motherwoman” as referring to those who “idolized their children， worshiped their husbands， and esteemed it a holy privilege to efface themselves as individuals and grow wings as ministering angels”(12). In other words， the motherwoman effaces herself for the sake of her family. Just as Siv Jansson has summarized about the qualities of the angel in the house： “womanhood combining the perfection of purity， spirituality， love and beauty”， Adèle is a typical example； in the first place， Adèle has the ideal feminine grace and charm that captivates men and women alike：There was nothing subtle or hidden about her charms； her beauty was all there， flaming and apparent： the spungold hair that comb nor confining pin could restrain； the blue eyes that were like nothing but sapphires； two lips that pouted， that were so red one could only think of cherries or some other delicious crimson fruit in looking at them...Never were hands more exquisite than hers， and it was a joy to look at them when she threaded her needle or adjusted her gold thimble to her taper middle finger. (12)Adèle not only displays her femininity in her outward appearance， but also in her movement and gestures as well. For example， she sometimes complains of faintness to her friends. Chopin makes it clear in the novel that the doctor has forbidden Madame Ratignolle to lift “so much as a pin!” (18). Fragile， sickly， and delicate， Madame Ratignolle lives fully up to the Victorian notion of femininity. Gilbert and Gubar note that “nineteenthcentury culture seems to have actually admonished women to be ill” (54). Women of upper and uppermiddleclass were often portrayed as either sick or frail. In the novel Edna is drastically different from Madame Ratignolle. Compared with the delicate frame of Adèle， Edna is healthy and robust. In other words， Edna does not fit exactly into the Victorian ideal of femininity as shown by Madame Ratignolle.
Moreover， Adèles life centres entirely on her husband and children. Her husband and children are her essential duty in life. Adèle worships her husband and agrees with him in everything completely. For example， at dinner table， Adèle is keenly interested in everything her husband says. She lays down her fork to listen more attentively， chimes in， and takes the words out of his mouth. “The Ratignolles understood each other perfectly. If ever the fusion of two human beings into one has been accomplished on this sphere it was surely in their union” (8186). So what about Chopins stance toward the institution of marriage? In the novel Chopin has been quite radical and outspoken in the case of Edna， but she does acknowledge the domestic bliss felt by the Ratignolles. Therefore， Chopin may harbour a complicated view toward marriage， and adopt an ambivalent stance toward marriage. Adèle also adores her children， and considers them her primary duty. She has been married for seven years， and has a baby about every two years. In this respect， Madame Ratignolle bears some resemblance to Chopins own life.In her twelve years of marriage， Chopin gave birth to six children. Madame Ratignolle is always talking about her condition， namely， her pregnancy， and persists in making it the subject of conversation.
The notion of independence is nonexistent to Madame Ratignolle. It seems that Adèle does not need private time alone devoted to satisfying her own needs and desires， as Edna does. During her pregnancy， she will work on knitting outfits for her children. Adèle plays the piano well， but she has no ambition of advancing at it， as Mademoiselle Reisz does. “She was keeping up her music on account of the children， she said； because she and her husband both considered it a means of brightening the home and making it attractive” (36). In other words， art means little to Adèle if it is not to fulfil the function of serving family members or decorating her home.
Adèles way of life， however， is not possible for Edna. Although captivated by Adèles beauty and enjoying her company， Edna finds Adèles life suffocating for her. She feels no longing for the domestic harmony enjoyed by the Ratignolles， as she realizes that it is not fitted for her. When Adèle suggests to Edna that she should spend more time with her husband so as to be more united， Edna responds with a blank look in her eyes： “Oh! dear no! What should I do if he stayed home? We wouldnt have anything to say to each other” (105). On the subject of children， Edna tells Adèle that she would never sacrifice herself for her children.“I would give up the unessential； I would give my money， I would give my life for my children； but I wouldnt give myself. I cant make it more clear； its only something which I am beginning to comprehend， which is revealing itself to me.”
“I dont know what you would call the essential， or what you mean by the unessential，” said Madame Ratignolle， cheerfully； “but a woman who would give her life for her children could do no more than that—your Bible tells you so. Im sure I couldnt do more than that.”(72)Adèle fails to understand Edna here. As Deborah Barker explains， Adèle is willing to give herself to her children “body and soul”， Edna， however， is not willing to follow suit “for either her children or her art” (72). Different from Edna， Adèle is comfortable in being totally consumed by her roles of wife and mother. Edna， however， does not agree. She begins to awaken to her sense of selfhood and autonomy. She starts to realize that she cannot give up her self for anyone， even her own children. Consequently， she feels pity for Adèle. The narrator comments： “She [Edna] was moved by a kind of commiseration for Madame Ratignolle， —a pity for that colorless existence which never uplifted its possessor beyond the region of blind contentment， in which no moment of anguish ever visited her soul， in which she would never have the taste of lifes delirium” (86). What is “lifes delirium”? For Edna， it symbolizes freedom and autonomy. Clearly， Edna disagrees with Adèles blind contentment to life， and she cannot devote her life entirely for her husband and children as Adèle does. Therefore， although similar in class and social background， Adèles model is unfitted for Edna to adopt.
Contrary to Madame Ratignolle who devotes her whole self to duty and family， Mademoiselle Reisz sacrifices her whole energy to the pursuit of art. Her outward appearance forms a stark contrast with the sensuous and delicate beauty of Madame Ratignolle：She was a disagreeable little woman， no longer young， who had quarreled with almost every one， owing to a temper which was selfassertive and a disposition to trample upon the rights of others... She was a homely woman， with a small weazened face and body and eyes that glowed. She had absolutely no taste in dress， and wore a batch of rusty black lace with a bunch of artificial violets pinned to the side of her hair. (3738)Mademoiselle Reisz is not attractive physically， and has a disagreeable personality， too. She completely lacks the delicate femininity exhibited by Madame Ratignolle. Why does a woman who devotes herself wholeheartedly to art have to be hideous and disagreeable? Deborah Barker thinks that Mlle. Reisz “remains a childlike anorexic figure who has developed her art at the expense of her physical desires. Her cramped apartment suggests the physical deprivation of her life” (7273). The anorexic figure of Mademoiselle Reisz reminds one of Veronica in The Morgesons. Gubar and Gilbert argue that “[r]ejecting the poisoned apples her culture offers her”， woman writers and their heroines in the nineteenth century are often in some sense anorexic (5758). Nancy Walker notes that the description of Mme Reiz “echoes the many unflattering portraits of the nineteenthcentury ‘bluestocking’， so devoted to her writing that she neglects both her femininity and her proper female role” (2). Walker suggests that the depiction of Mademoiselle Reisz may reflect Chopins own anxiety at creating such an unconventional figure. One can even go further by suggesting that Chopin may find it impossible to create a character combining Adèles beauty with Mademoiselle Reiszs talent and choice of life.It can be assumed that Chopin may not be very comfortable to break completely free from the Victorian notion of femininity.
Like the protagonist in some of Chopins short stories，Mademoiselle Reisz chooses singlehood for the sake of her art. She does not have a family， nor does she desire one either. Consequently， Mademoiselle Reisz is not bound by any obligation to family members. She can spend her own time according to her own fancy. The drawback of being totally on her own is that Mademoiselle Reisz cannot live a comfortable life as Edna or Madame Ratignolle does， with the income from a husband. She has to rely on her own limited resources. But small as it is， she has a place of her own， and she is the master of her place. The place is “dingy”， but has a “magnificent” piano in it (94). The reward of singlehood for Mademoiselle Reisz is that she can dedicate herself entirely to her piano and music. She is not encumbered by domestic duties such as taking care of family members or social duties such as receiving guests and callers. She is indeed autonomous， and conducts her life according to her own will. In other words， she is not entrapped by domestic responsibilities.
Art is supreme for Mademoiselle Reisz. She defines the qualities of an artist as follows： “To be an artist includes much； one must possess many gifts—absolute gifts—which have not been acquired by ones own effort. And， moreover， to succeed， the artist must possess the courageous soul” (97). Mademoiselle Reisz considers “courageous soul” an essential quality for an artist. She believes that the brave soul needs to dare and defy tradition. Indeed， Mademoiselle Reisz herself both dares and defies the conventional path for a woman， such as marriage and approval by others， in order to be an autonomous person wholly dedicated to her art.
Chopin admired the works of her predecessors such as Sarah Orne Jewett and Mary Wilkins Freeman. Both Jewett and Freeman had written short stories about strongminded women characters who value their independence and choose careers over marriages. Chopin wrote several short stories on a similar theme， such as “Wiser than a God” and “The Maid of Saint Phillippe”. Chopin often places the quest for free will within the context of marital issues. The frequent links between womens independence and marital choices are understandable， as in nineteenthcentury America， womens fates were often if not always shaped and sealed by their marital status and situations.
Mademoiselle Reiszs choice of art over marriage reminds one of Chopins short story “Wiser than a God” which was written before The Awakening. In the story， the female protagonist， Paula Von Stoltz， chooses the career of pianist over the prospect of marrying George Brainard， the man she loves dearly. Paula questions George： “Is music anything more to you than the pleasing distraction of an idle moment? Cant you feel that with me， it courses with the blood through my veins? That its something dearer than life， than riches， even than love?” (46). Allen Stein thinks that Paula realizes that “marriage to him [George] would trap her in the dubious comforts of a welloff domesticity and destroy her most cherished aspiration as an artist” (111). It is not easy for the protagonist to sacrifice a possible happy union with her loved one for the sake of pursuing her dream of music. The narrator of the short story， however， makes it clear in the story that marriage and career aspirations are not compatible.
It is through the music played by Mademoiselle Reisz that Edna starts to awaken. Her music has a mesmerizing effect on the latter， and continues to exert such power when Edna comes back to listen to her play. In some sense， Mademoiselle Reisz becomes both a mentor and confidante to Edna. “It was then， in the presence of that personality which was offensive to her， that the woman， by her divine art， seemed to reach Ednas spirit and set it free” (120). Mademoiselle Reiszs music inspires Edna to search for her sense of self， to become an artist， and to accept her longing and love for Robert Lebrun.
However， Mademoiselle Reiszs existence is not appealing to Edna， either. Like Madame Ratignolles blind contentment to domestic duty and bliss， Mademoiselle Reisz is blinded by her complete devotion to art. Showalter summarizes the dilemma between art and motherhood as： “artistic fulfillment required the sacrifice of maternal drives， and maternal fulfillment meant giving up artistic ambitions” (12). Mademoiselle Reiszs fails to realize that her life is likewise compromised and unbalanced as Madame Ratignolle. Chopin mentions three times in the novel the “shabby lace and the artificial bunch of violets” (38， 95， 121) she wears on her head. By stressing the artificial flowers， the narrator suggests that in some way Mademoiselle Reiszs life is lacking. She leads a dry and wizened life. Moreover， to defy social tradition， she fails to notice her rudeness and inconsideration to others. There is no love in her life， one essential element that Edna cannot give up. Deborah Barker notes that Edna and Mademoiselle Reisz display different attitudes toward art： “Edna is not willing to accept Mlle. Reiszs belief that the artist must sacrifice the self for art. From the start， Edna has shown an unconventional attitude toward her work. In the readers first encounter with Edna as a painter， Edna establishes her own criterion as an artist， which she maintains throughout the novel” (73). It is not very certain that Edna has a set of criterion as an artist， as suggested by Barker， for initially she harbours doubts about her own skill and talent as a painter， and tries to seek opinions from others. Although in awe of Mademoiselle Reiszs divine art， Edna is unwilling to follow in her footsteps. Ann Heilmann thinks “[a]lthough Edna divests herself of her old self， consolidating her break with the past with her affair with Arobin， she has no new identity that would constructively enable her to strike out on an independent life effectively and permanently. Instead， she experiments with two contrasting female roles exemplified by Madame Ratignolle and Mademoiselle Reisz—the passionate mother and the artist—but ultimately rejects both” (96). Failing to find satisfaction in either the model of Madame Ratignolle or that of Mademoiselle Reisz， Edna decides to embark upon her own path of life. However， her later experience suggests that she cannot carve out a third way for herself， i.e. to pursue art， love and autonomy at the same time. Her failure will be discussed in the later part of this chapter.
Entrapment and the Institution of Marriage
Although in her own life Chopin followed a conventional path similar to most of the women in her own era， i.e. to get married and have children， she expressed a quite complex view toward marriage in her works. Chopin is obviously aware of the image of the angel in the house， as she creates the character of Adèle Ratignolle， who fully embodies such an image. However， at the same time， she also creates the problematic character of the protagonist， who subverts the traditional image of an angel. As mentioned before， Chopin seems to neither fully support nor condemn the institution of marriage. She therefore adopts an ambivalent stance.
Before looking at Ednas feeling of entrapment in her marriage， one needs to know how she ends up in her confined marital life. Chopin offers some details to explain Ednas past passions and her present marriage. Before Ednas marriage to Mr. Pontellier， she is secretly in love with a tragedian. “It was when the face and figure of a great tragedian began to haunt her imagination and stir her senses. The persistence of the infatuation lent it an aspect of genuineness. The hopelessness of it colored it with the lofty tones of a great passion” (26). Ednas love is immature and one sided. Infatuation may be the more appropriate description of her state. Amidst Ednas secret passion for the tragedian， she meets Léonce Pontellier. Chopin describes their marriage as purely accidental： “resembling many other marriages which masquerade as the decrees of Fate” (27). It is hard not to ignore the narrators ironic tone here. With blind impulse and little sophisticated understanding of the reality of marriage， Edna accepts Léonce. It is not hard to perceive the narrators tone of disapproval at this union； therefore， the later problems and disruption of this marriage do not come as too great a surprise.
Edna initially follows the conventional ideals of the Victorian era， i.e. becoming the angel in the house. She thinks that she can lead a life as a devoted wife and mother just like other women. In Gender and Colonial Space， Sara Mills points out that within the historical context of the nineteenth century in the West， a womans place was generally assumed to be in the domestic sphere at home： “women should take the major role in childrearing and householdmanagement” (52). After her marriage， Edna grows fond of her husband， “realizing with some unaccountable satisfaction that no trace of passion or excessive and fictitious warmth colored her affection， thereby threatening its dissolution” (27). However， at the same time Edna also realizes that she has assumed the duty of a married woman without knowing the reality. In Chopins words， Edna has blindly assumed a responsibility “for which Fate had not fitted her” (27). Nancy Theriot in Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenthcentury America notes that mothers usually prepared their daughters to fill in their proper domestic roles in marriage. Mothers taught daughters to “curb their ambition and confine their activities within the narrow field of domestic service” (71). Ednas mother died young， and Edna is “selfcontained” as a child (25). Without a proper model to observe and learn from， it would not be too surprising that Edna makes the mistake of entering into an unsuitable marriage and is unprepared for its duty as well.
In the beginning of the novel， Chopin informs readers that Edna becomes a possession owned by her husband，Léonce Pontellier， after her marriage. Léonce highly values his possessions. The narrator points out to the readers that Edna belongs to Mr. Pontelliers possessions， for he looks at his wife “as one looks at a valuable piece of personal property” (3). Here the word choice of “property” is worth noting， for under the American historical context， black slaves were considered as properties of their white masters rather than white women. Sally Mitchell notes that in nineteenthcentury Britain， “women also were property...in the eyes of the courts， she had no separate existence； any legal action she entered had to be taken jointly with her husband， and under his name...For a woman to control her own body—to dispose of it or authorize its use as she saw fit—interfered with the property rights of her husband or father” (xi). Mitchell here is referring to the British laws in the nineteenth century， and she expresses a similar idea that women were sometimes considered as “property” in the nineteenth century. De Beauvoir mentions in The Second Sex that in marriage woman becomes mans “vassal”： “She takes his name； she belongs to his religion， his class， his circle； she joins his family， she becomes his ‘half’” (449). By noting that Ednas status as one beautiful piece of her husbands possessions， Chopin expresses the similar view half a century earlier that it is quite possible for woman to become mans “property” or vassal in marriage in nineteenthcentury America.
Before Ednas awakening，I divide Ednas process of waking up into three stages. In the first stage， Edna begins to realize a sense of selfhood at Grand Isle. In the second stage， she tries to strive for autonomy in New Orleans. In the third stage， Edna realizes the futility of her struggle， and commits suicide at Grand Isle. she behaves just like a conventional married woman of her own class. For example， she smiles and waves when her husband leaves for business， and exclaims happily like a child when she receives money from her husband to buy gifts. However， when Edna starts to awaken， she has a series of confrontations with her husband. These confrontations are crucial to sense the growing dissatisfaction the protagonist feels toward her marriage and prevailing doctrine of selfsacrifice on the part of wives. Theriot notes that “[t]he necessity of female selfsacrifice， womanly submission， and the equation of self with gender role was part of the gender script” for middleclass women (62). After her initial awakening， however， Edna does not want to submit to her husbands will all the time any more. In her first confrontation with her husband， she insists on staying outside on a hammock instead of sleeping inside the house as requested by her husband. “This is more than folly，” he [Léonce] blurted out. “I cant permit you to stay out there all night. You must come in the house instantly” (47). Léonce uses the word “permit” as if giving an order. Different from previous cases in which Edna would submit to his command， this time Edna insists on her own free will. “Edna began to feel like one who awakens gradually out of a dream， a delicious， grotesque， impossible dream， to feel again the realities pressing into her soul” (48). In the process of awakening， Edna starts to shake off her responsibility and leans more toward her autonomy. She follows her impulse， and frees her “soul of responsibility” (49). The grip of domestic duty， required to fulfill the role of the angel in the house， has been loosened upon her. In this respect， Edna is similar to Cassandra Morgeson； both follow their instincts.Both characters have acted according to their present emotions without giving thoughts to future consequences. It seems that both Stoddard and Chopin believe that free will is essential to the discovery of self.
Ednas second confrontation with her husband reveals her inner revolt against the inequality of marriage in a patriarchal society where a womans free will is often trampled upon. Nancy Theriot notes that in nineteenthcentury America “[y]oung women learned， from the culture at large and from their own family situations， to expect little emotional support or understanding from men. The role of the male in the family involved work， or worldly orientation， and patriarchal control within the household” (6768). During her second stage of awakening， Edna finds the duty of receiving guests on Tuesday afternoon troublesome. She has to wear a formal reception gown and remain in the drawingroom the entire afternoon receiving visitors. Previously Edna has “religiously” followed this practice for six years of her marriage. But now she decides to ignore such a practice. Lawrence Thornton accurately summarizes Ednas rebellion against the practice as： “for her， marriage has come to seem like only one more convention within the myriad social forms that have become oppressive to her” (94). The act of stamping her heel on her wedding ring is symbolic， showing Ednas anger and the oppression she feels within the bounds of marriage. “Once she stopped， and taking off her wedding ring， flung it upon the carpet. When she saw it lying there， she stamped her heel upon it， striving to crush it” (80). During her process of waking up， Edna gradually rids herself of her reserve， and becomes honest with her own emotions. She dares to display a range of emotions such as anger and passion， and to rebel against conventions and rules that govern a married woman. Blind submission to her husbands will is replaced by the exercising of her free will. In other words， Edna is no longer the passive and submissive angel in the house.
Mr. Pontellier uses the conventional moral codes to reprimand Edna. He thinks it “the utmost folly for a woman at the head of a household， and the mother of children， to spend in an atelier days which would be better employed contriving for the comfort of her family” (87). However， Edna is unrelenting. Mr. Pontellier can only make sense of his wifes changes by assuming she may be “mentally unbalanced”. The narrator comments： “He could see plainly that she was not herself. That is， he could not see that she was becoming herself and daily casting aside that fictitious self which we assume like a garment with which to appear before the world” (87). Here Chopin does not take sides with the prevailing Victorian notion of womans duty to family and community， or to condemn Ednas wilfulness and lack of sense of responsibility； rather， she points out that Edna is breaking away from the bondage of Victorian ideology and learning to become truthful to her own self day by day. Notice in the lines quoted above， Chopin uses the word “we” instead of “she”. Here Chopin is not only talking about Edna， but about women in general. She is honest and daring to point out that to some women， marriage may not be the suited path of life， such as in the case of Edna Pontiller.
Chopin is not the first woman writer to have raised questions about the suitability of marriage for certain portions of the female population. Nancy Theriot points out that women writers such as Catharine Sedgwick and Elizabeth Oakes Smith have also noted the unhappiness in some marriages in nineteenthcentury America. Sedgwick notes that her sisters marriage is not “congenial”， while Smith observes that many women are not “content” in their marriage (Theriot 69). Going through Chopins short stories， Allen Stein argues that there are only two options for wives in Chopins stories， neither of which is appealing： “They can submit， yielding to a husband and， indeed， to an institution that deny them anything approximating autonomy of thought， desire， or action， or they can rebel， only to find their rebellion shortlived and futile， as nothing in their experience or social context encourages the sort of personal latitude and growth for which they long” (8). Although Stein is commenting on Chopins short stories， his opinion fits Ednas experience in her married life as well.
Chopin is careful to suggest that there is still confusion and uncertainty in Ednas understanding of selfhood in her second stage of awakening. Recognizing that she has deviated from the acceptable model of life for a married bourgeois woman， Edna reflects upon her sense of self as follows：“One of these days，” she said， “Im going to pull myself together for a while and think—try to determine what character of a woman I am； for， candidly， I dont know. By all the codes which I am acquainted with， I am a devilishly wicked specimen of the sex. But some way I cant convince myself that I am. I must think about it.” (12627)Edna realizes that according to Victorian morality that emphasizes the sacred roles of wife and mother， she has broken the moral codes by abandoning her domestic duty， searching for liberty and self， and developing affairs outside marriage. At the same time， however， Edna fails to foresee the harsh pressure from the society on her yet.“Chopin...reveals the limits of the late nineteenth centurys definitions of selfhood. At its base， such a self affirms an ego， an I， that is only and always in control. Such a self is ever subject， never subjected to its responsibilities and relations to others， as women inevitably are” (Ewell 164). Ewell accurately summarizes the difficulty women generally face in the late nineteenth century. When women are traditionally considered as selfless， the quest for selfhood is bound to be arduous and confusing.
Ednas claim to autonomy is also reflected in her changed view toward marriage. In the beginning of the novel， she is thinking of buying a gift for her sisters wedding. After her first stage of awakening， Edna forms a radical view toward the institution of marriage. She considers marriage hideous， as robbing a woman of her freedom； and refuses to attend her sisters wedding. She now considers wedding “one of the most lamentable spectacles on earth” (102). Ann Heilmann thinks Ednas “staunch refusal to attend her sisters wedding completes this process of externalized feminist rebellion， for it calls into question not simply her own marriage but the very principle of marriage” (95). Ednas father is a figure of patriarchy， who believes authority and coercion are needed to manage a wife. In the novel， “The Colonel [Ednas father] reproached his daughter for her lack of filial kindness and respect， her want of sisterly affection and womanly consideration” (109). Chopin， obviously， is averse to the view presented by the Colonel， as she adds a line sarcastically in the later part of the paragraph： “The Colonel was perhaps unaware that he had coerced his own wife into her grave” (109).
A womans loss of her free will in the context of marriage is a theme that Chopin has paid particular attention to. Before writing The Awakening， Chopin published several short stories centring on a womans loss of free will. “The Story of an Hour”， Chopins most wellknown short piece， fully emphasizes the suffering at the loss of free will and the desire for freedom for her married woman character. The protagonist， Mrs. Mallard， feels monstrous joy over the news of her husbands death. “She said it over and over under her breath： ‘free， free， free!’” (353). On this part of the story， Richard Fusco comments： “Chopin presents us with an uncensored account of emotions and desires that a human being often hides from others—and sometimes suppresses within himself\/[herself]” (153). The quoted paragraph above shows Mrs. Mallards awareness of the lack of autonomy caused by her marriage. Barbara Ewell explains that “[a]s Chopin often insists， love is not a substitute for selfhood； indeed， selfhood is loves precondition. Such a strong and unconventional assertion of feminine independence likely explains Centurys rejection [of publishing the story]” (89).
Chopins opposition to the likely loss of free will in the institution of marriage can also be compared with Henrik Ibsens plays. There is similarity between the protagonists in The Awakening and A Dolls House. In Ibsens play， A Dolls House (1879)， the protagonist， Nora Helmer， refuses to be the doll for her husband and father anymore， and leaves her marriage. Chopin had read Ibsens works and was familiar with A Dolls House. Like Nora， Edna starts to wake up and refuses to be the doll for her husband or father anymore.A Dolls House dramatically establishes primary sources of confinement， foremost among these insistence upon the duties of a wife and mother. Concurrent and supportive factors are authoritative males， societal reinforcements， and the solitude of the woman. With some variations， especially in intensity， Ibsen explores the impact of these restrictions upon his female protagonists. (Jacob 81)At the end of the play， Ibsens Nora chooses her freedom and authenticity over her duties as a wife and mother. “Youre [Noras husband] not to feel yourself bound in any way， and nor shall I. we must both be perfectly free” (Ibsen 231). Chopins Edna follows a similar path. She is determined to follow no ones will except her own. Both Edna and Nora in the end regard the institution of marriage as one form of confinement， and choose to walk away from this institution， regardless of their future outcomes.
Edna also refuses to be confined by her duty as a mother. While emphasizing that Edna is not a motherwoman， Chopin does not describe Edna as the opposite， i.e. a coldhearted woman， who has little emotion toward her children. Edna is genuinely fond of spending time with her children. “She lived with them a whole week long， giving them all of herself， and gathering and filling herself with their young existence” (145). However， by the time Edna returns to the city， the thoughts of her children are gone. We are told clearly by the narrator that “She [Edna] was again alone” (146). Children are only part of Ednas existence， and she cannot devote herself totally to them. The refusal to be a devoted mother goes against the Victorian notion of womanhood. Therefore， such characterization and sentiment could not very well be accepted by Victorian critics and readers.The parallel between the experiences of Edna Pontellier， as she breaks away from the conventional feminine roles of wife and mother， and Kate Chopin， as she breaks away from conventions of literary domesticity， suggests that Ednas story may also be read as parable of Chopins literary awakening. Both the author and the heroine seem to be oscillating between two worlds， caught between contradictory definitions of femininity and creativity， and seeking either to synthesize them or to go beyond them to an emancipated womanhood and an emancipated fiction. Edna Pontelliers “unfocused yearning” for an autonomous life is akin to Kate Chopins yearning to write works that go beyond female plots and feminine endings. (Showalter 89)Ann Wood notes that in nineteenthcentury America， if women writers wanted to succeed in the market， the contents of their books should be proper and stay “feminine” (6). Chopin， however， does not want to be restricted in her artistic endeavours. She wants to write the truth instead of contrite “feminine” content. The claim for selfhood and autonomy in the novel goes against the ethos of adherence to duty and the spirit of selfsacrificing required on the part of women in nineteenthcentury America. The novel， therefore， was considered unhealthy for wives and mothers of Chopins time. While not openly condemning the institution of marriage， Chopin does point out the sense of suffocation experienced by her women characters.
As mentioned earlier， the idea of the New Woman entered into history around 1890s. Given the “shocking” content of The Awakening， there are people who try to look at Chopin as a New Woman writer. But according to several biographers， Chopin can not really be regarded as a feminist. She stayed away from political organizations for womens movementFor example， womens movement for equality and suffrage. in general. Moreover， according to Per Seyersted， Chopin herself would probably “regarded the New World feminists as unrealistic” (102). Likewise， Nancy Walker agrees with Seyersted by stating that there is little evidence suggesting that Kate Chopin had ever considered herself as a New Woman. Walker， however， stresses that Chopin did depart significantly from the domestic novel of her predecessors in that The Awakening “questions both the fulfillment of marriage and the universality of womans maternal instinct” (20). In other words， Chopin has realized the possible confinement marriage can impose on women， and thus raised questions about it. Nevertheless， her attitude toward the institution of marriage remains ambivalent in that she has neither openly glorified nor condemned it.
A Room of Ones Own： Physical Space，
Economy and EntrapmentIn her book A Room of Ones Own (1929)， Virginia Woolf advocates the idea of a room of ones own for women in general. The image of a room of ones own can be understood both physically as well as metaphorically. The room can refer to a private room at home where a woman can think and write freely. The room also implies financial security. Woolf points to the fact that women have been poor over the centuries. They can throughout history neither make money nor keep money legally by law.According to Mary Beth Combs， it was not until the passing of “The 1870 Married Womens Property Act” that granted British women the right to control their own property. Woolf therefore stresses the importance of financial security， and considers it indispensible for forming a female self. She claims： “[G]ive her a room of her own and five hundred [pounds] a year， let her speak her mind and leave out half that she now puts in， and she will write a better book one of these days” (142). Woolf thinks that selfreliance plus financial independence will enable a woman to fully tap into her artistic potential and achieve her identity.
In The Awakening， Chopin describes the protagonists longing for more physical space (physical space other than her home) in the beginning of the novel. Chopin sets Ednas first stage of waking up in the background of Grand Isle， which is an island away from her home in New Orleans. “Sailing across the bay to the Cheniere Caminada， Edna felt as if she were being borne away from some anchorage which had held her fast， whose chains had been loosening—had snapped the night before when the mystic spirit was abroad， leaving her free to drift whithersoever she chose to set her sails” (5152). Here the chains can refer to duties as mother and wife for Edna. As she is away from home， in particular from husband and children， Edna feels “free to drift”. B. Ewell thinks that a central theme of Chopins novel is to show how hard it is for an individual， especially female， to achieve personal integrity within conventional restraints. She may be right to claim that Edna poses as the “uncertain figure” (143) of the conflict between self and society. The experience at the island foreshadows Ednas longing for more room for the development of self.
The dénouement of Ednas second stage of awakening is marked by Ednas plan of moving out of her big house. The idea of moving away appears more like a caprice than a wellthoughtout plan to Edna.Mademoiselle Reisz feels confused at Ednas desire to move away， so does Edna herself. However， instinctively， she longs to leave her husbands house.Neither was it quite clear to Edna herself； but it unfolded itself as she sat for a while in silence. Instinct had prompted her to put away her husbands bounty in casting off her allegiance. She did not know how it would be when he returned. There would have to be an understanding， an explanation. Conditions would some way adjust themselves， she felt； but whatever came， she had resolved never again to belong to another than herself. (123)Instinctively Edna feels moving away is the way she can belong to herself. She can truly own her self and space. Deborah Barker thinks Ednas plan suggests her wish to seek alternative space of femininity： “She desires the ‘little glimpses of life denied to most women’” (75). In the novel Edna walks unchaperoned in the alleys of New Orleans to see and explore the city and life. She asserts her independence by finally moving to the pigeon house and eventually has a place of her own.
Moving into the pigeon house symbolizes a crucial step Edna takes toward her independence. Edna does not consult her husbands opinion on the matter. She simply quits her home on Esplanade Street and moves into the little house around the block. “A feverish anxiety attended her every action in that direction. There was no moment of deliberation， no interval of repose between the thought and its fulfillment...Within the precincts of her home she felt like one who has entered and lingered within the portals of some forbidden temple in which a thousand muffled voices bade her begone” (129). Occupying a place of her own provides Edna with a strange sensation. The longing in her heart urges her to move out， and to be solely on her own in a little house fills her with a curious sense of fulfilment. The narrator is careful to note that the urge of moving comes from the protagonists inner drive instead of any deliberate or lengthy thoughts. The act itself is instinctive. Earlier the narrator compares Edna to a sleek animal waking up. It seems that urge to have a place of her own comes more from instinct and sensibility than reason.
Chopin explores the theme of “a room of ones own” some twenty years earlier than Virginia Woolf. In the novel， Chopin penetrates Ednas feeling toward her pigeon house as follows：The pigeon house pleased her. It at once assumed the intimate character of a home， while she herself invested it with a charm which it reflected like a warm glow. There was with her a feeling of having descended in the social scale， with a corresponding sense of having risen in the spiritual. Every step which she took toward relieving herself from obligations added to her strength and expansion as an individual. She began to look with her own eyes； to see and to apprehend the deeper undercurrents of life. No longer was she content to“feed upon opinion” when her own soul had invited her. (144)Here Chopin explicitly talks about Ednas choice between duty and autonomy. Edna relieves “herself from obligations”， grows stronger and freer， and lives as “an individual”. She is no longer bounded by social opinions， but follows her hearts yearnings. There are some differences between Chopins and Woolfs notions of a room of ones own. To Chopin， a room of ones own enables one to find and realize selfhood. To Woolf， however， she emphasizes more the literary endeavour a woman can achieve in an independent space： “a locker on the door means the power to think for oneself” (160). Woolf thinks that the freedom to think and write is essential to produce good literary works. Despite the different focus of emphasis， both Chopin and Woolf realize the necessity of individual freedom and space for woman， and in particular the woman artist， to better understand self and improve her art.
Ednas move， or newfound independence， however， is not without its problems. Although having some resources of her own， Ednas income is not enough to provide her with a comfortable life at the small house. She has to rely on her husbands resources. Edna gives an extravagant farewell dinner before her moving with her best of everything—“crystal， silver and gold， Sèvres， flowers， music， and champagne to swim in” (131). She tells Arobin： “Ill let Léonce pay the bills. I wonder what hell say when he sees the bills” (131). In other words， there is not enough financial basis for her independence. Her new found autonomy is only partial. Sadly Edna fails to perceive it. Similarly in Leo Tolstoys Anna Karenina(1878)， Annas husband， Karenin， accuses Anna of having a lover while still eating her husbands bread.Anna has an affair with Vronsky while still enjoying the comforts provided by her husband. Both Leo Tolstoy and Kate Chopin seem to point out that without adequate economic resources， the fulfilment of self for a woman is unachievable.
Edna asserts her regality or dominance as an independent person during her farewell dinner before her departure. It is a luxurious dinner. Amid the sumptuous feast， Edna behaves as if she is a queen. She wears a magnificent cluster of diamonds sparkling in her hair， over the centre of her forehead. Edna makes no effort to hide that the diamonds are a birthday present from her husband. Even though Edna tries to carve out a totally new space for herself， she seems reluctant to fully relinquish the former comforts associated with her husband. This leads one to question Ednas new independence. Is it real or only superficial? Chopin gives out detailed descriptions of Ednas outfit during the dinner， which reflects the characters inner world： “The golden shimmer of Ednas satin gown spread in rich folds on either side of her...There was something in her attitude， in her whole appearance when she leaned her head against the highbacked chair and spread her arms， which suggested the regal woman， the one who rules， who looks on， who stands alone” (138). Similar to Stoddard， Chopin pays attention to the details and descriptions of womens appearance. Although the approach of describing a womans outward appearance to reflect her inner world and thoughts is not new， interestingly both Stoddard and Chopin resort to this method. The last sentence， “the regal woman， the one who rules， who looks on， who stands alone” is crucial here. It reflects Ednas feeling at the moment. She is going to rule， look on， and stand alone in her new place. The autonomy and authority she has over the new chapter of her life makes her elated， gives her a sense of being in control， and makes her feel almost like a queen. The sentence also reminds one of Sylvia Plaths famous lines from her poem “Sting” (1962)： “They thought death was worth it， but I \/ Have a self to recover， a queen” (66). Plaths poem was written over half a century later than Chopins novel. Both pieces of works are concerned with the discovery of a womans selfhood. Both Chopin and Plath refer to a womans independence and selfrule to that of a queen. Plaths poem gives readers hope of success； whereas in Chopins novel， the protagonists feeling of queenship is temporary and fleeting.
Chopin suggests that Ednas feeling of being in control is only temporary and unreal. Amid her guests， Edna， however， is still assailed by a sense of hopelessness. “But as she sat there amid her guests， she felt the old ennui overtaking her； the hopelessness which so often assailed her， which came upon her like an obsession， like something extraneous， independent of volition” (138). Here the tone of the narrator is depressing， which implies pessimism toward Ednas success of attaining an autonomous self.Allen Stein explains the “autonomous self” in his book Women and Autonomy in Kate Chopins Short Fiction as the yearning for power to control over ones own life. Nancy Theriot in Mothers and Daughters in Nineteenthcentury America summarizes the female autonomy in late nineteenth century as “freedom of individual decision， the need for selfknowledge， and the right to education” (133). Here， I agree with both Steins and Theriots notions. By mentioning the recurring and inescapable hopelessness， the narrator implies Ednas eventual failure of procuring her independence and happiness.
Private Sphere (The Female Body) and Entrapment
The relationship between the female body and entrapment is explored from the following two angles： bodily sensations and womans biology. It should be stressed that the female body can be viewed both in positive and negative terms， i.e. the female body can be both confining and liberating. In The Second Sex， de Beauvoir notes the ambivalence with which a woman looks at her body. She thinks that the body is a burden for a woman： “worn away in service to the species， bleeding each month” (630). Susan Bordo， on the other hand， suggests the positive aspect of the female body. She thinks that the experience of a womans control over her own body can be “liberating” (2365)， and enable her to achieve a sense of selfhood.
Bodily Sensations and Entrapment
Chopin associates Ednas awakening with bodily movements and sensations， such as swimming， sleeping， hunger， etc. In the beginning of the novel， readers are told that Edna has attempted to learn swimming all summer without any success. She has received instructions from both men and women， and sometimes even from children. However， Edna is impeded by a certain dread of water， and she does not feel safe “unless there was a hand near by that might reach out and reassure her” (41). But one night， she suddenly wishes to go to the beach. The narrator tells readers that “[i]n short， Mrs. Pontellier was beginning to realize her position in the universe as a human being， and to recognize her relations as an individual to the world within and about her. This may seem like a ponderous weight of wisdom to descend upon the soul of a young woman of twentyeight—perhaps more wisdom than the Holy Ghost is usually pleased to vouchsafe to any woman” (19). From the above sentences， one can see that the female protagonist is viewed by the narrator as an autonomous individual who needs to reflect upon her own connection within herself and with the universe.
Edna gains a sense of control over her body through acquiring the art of swimming. On the very night after hearing Mademoiselle Reiszs music， she ventures into the ocean alone like a tottering child.But that night she was like the little tottering， stumbling， clutching child， who of a sudden realizes its powers， and walks for the first time alone， boldly and with overconfidence. She could have shouted for joy. She did shout for joy， as with a sweeping stroke or two she lifted her body to the surface of the water. A feeling of exultation overtook her， as if some power of significant import had been given her to control the working of her body and her soul. She grew daring and reckless， overestimating her strength. She wanted to swim far out， where no woman had swum before. (41)The ability to swim gives Edna a newly found confidence in her own capacities. She finally conquers her fear， leaves her comfort zone， and learns the joy of swimming solo. Chopin describes the whole process vividly， and notes that Edna begins to wish to “swim far out， where no woman had swum before” (41). Later in the novel， Edna does venture into territory not treaded or not wished to be treaded by other women， such as in her pursuit of an independent selfhood and love outside her marriage.
Chopin carefully preserves and emphasizes Ednas independence in the act of swimming. After learning how to swim， Edna does not join other people in the groups； instead， she swims out alone， “intoxicated with her newly conquered power” (42). She feels that she is gradually waking up to some newly gained strength and territory. Ann Heilman thinks “Ednas midnight swim is much more than a victory of physical coordination. It establishes her sense of selfownership， physical， mental and spiritual， which in turn triggers two fundamental insights that determine her progression from disengaged wife to autonomous subject” (87). The symbolic connection between swimming and selfdetermination is crucial. It explains the reason why Chopin spends lengthy paragraphs dwelling upon the subject of swimming for the protagonist. Swimming both marks and aids the protagonists progress toward her autonomy.
In Ednas initial stage of awakening， one character cannot be ignored， i.e. Robert Lebrun. He facilitates Ednas awakening and understands the sensation and emotion the latter undergoes. Robert is a young fellow of Creole background. He devotes himself gallantly to a fair dame or damsel each summer at the Grand Isle. This summer， he devotes himself to attending to Edna. On the night when Edna begins to awake， she confides in Robert： “A thousand emotions have swept through me tonight. I dont comprehend half of them...It is like a night in a dream. The people about me are like some uncanny， halfhuman beings. There must be spirits abroad tonight” (43). Edna cannot understand her emotion or sense of self at the time； the narrator， however， informs readers that Robert has penetrated her mood and understood. In the silence between Edna and Robert when they are alone， the narrator suggests： “No multitude of words could have been more significant than those moments of silence， or more pregnant with the firstfelt throbbings of desire” (46). Commenting on the function of Robert， B. Ewell thinks that Robert serves as catalyst to Ednas awakening. The scene with Edna and Robert sitting in silence suggests that change have occurred within the protagonist without her clear awareness. Here Chopin associates the spiritual awakening with bodily sensations， such as swimming. In other words， to Chopin， the body and soul is interconnected. Bodily sensations can lead to the awakening of soul.
Apart from swimming， the narrator also lists other bodily sensations that further lead to Ednas awakening， in particular sleeping and hunger. Chopin literarily let her protagonist sleep and wake up to find herself a changed person. Due to physical exhaustion， Edna takes a rest and a nap at a residents house on the island.She looked at her round arms as she held them straight up and rubbed them one after the other， observing closely， as if it were something she saw for the first time， the fine， firm quality and texture of her flesh. She clasped her hands easily above her head， and it was thus she fell asleep. She slept lightly at first， half awake and drowsily attentive to the things about her...When Edna awoke it was with the conviction that she had slept long and soundly...Her eyes were bright and wide awake and her face glowed. (5557)Chopin does not shy away from talking about the sensations of the flesh. Commenting on the Victorian culture， Gilbert and Gubar note： “Learning to become a beautiful object， the girl learns anxiety about—perhaps even loathing of—her own flesh” (54). In the paragraph quoted above， Edna examines the texture of her flesh “as if it were something she saw for the first time”. Toward the end of the novel， similar moments occur when Edna examines her own body again. To Chopin， flesh or body is something to be appreciated instead of loathed. She thereby associates the body with the sense of selfhood. Edna is both literarily and metaphorically awakened from a dream， i.e. her past. When she wakes up， she is a new person with bright eyes and glowing face. Barbara Ewell argues that “[f]undamental to Ednas selfawakening is the recognition of her physical being” (144). This again touches the inseparableness of body and soul. Edna has gained a new understanding and recognition of both her body and her autonomy. The narrator suggests that although Edna only takes a short nap， her attitude and outlook on life have undergone tremendous transformations.
Apart from bodily sensations such as sleepiness， Chopin also writes about hunger for her protagonist. Similar to Stoddard， Chopin likewise associates the physical hunger with spiritual yearning. Hunger follows the protagonist through her entire stage of wakening up till her death.When she had completed her toilet she walked into the adjoining room. She was very hungry. No one was there. But there was a cloth spread upon the table that stood against the wall， and a cover was laid for one， with a crusty brown loaf and a bottle of wine beside the plate. Edna bit a piece from the brown loaf， tearing it with her strong， white teeth. She poured some of the wine into the glass and drank it down.(5556)Chopin describes Ednas hunger for food in detail. Some suggest that the loaf and wine Edna consumes in the above paragraph resemble the act of Holy Communion； therefore， it can be viewed as a passage of rite to the newly awakened self. Susan Bordo notes that the selfsacrificing nature of femininity is best exemplified in the control of female appetite for food. “The rules for this construction of femininity (and I speak here in a language both symbolic and literal) require that women learn to feed others， not the self， and to construe any desires for selfnurturance and selffeeding as greedy and excessive” (2367). Here Bordo associates the female appetite for food metaphorically to the desire of selfnurturance and hope in life.
In The Awakening， Chopin repeatedly emphasizes Ednas hunger during her process of waking up. During the midlength of the novel， Edna is hungry again after one dinner. “She rummaged in the larder and brought forth a slice of Gruyere and some crackers. She opened a bottle of beer which she found in the icebox” (115). Chopin links Ednas restlessness and excitement with her hunger for food. “She [Edna] wanted something to happen—something， anything； she did not know what” (116). In addition， toward the end of the novel before Ednas suicide， she once more returns to Grand Isle. Before going to the water， she sends Victor Lebrun to fetch her some food， for she is very hungry. It seems hunger accompanies Ednas whole process of awakening till her death. The act of hunger for food betrays Ednas hunger for hope in life. Earlier the narrator mentions that Edna hopes for something to happen， yet she does not know what exactly she longs for. Ednas hope for the fulfilment of love and freedom cannot be realized. The insatiable hunger accompanies her till her disillusionment and death.
Similarly， in one of Chopins short story “A Respectable Woman”， Chopin also associates her characters emotion with hunger. “With her sharp white teeth she tore the far corner from the letter， where the name was written； she bit the torn scrap and tasted it between her lips and upon her tongue like some godgiven morsel” (399). In this short story， Chopin tries to describe her female characters passion for her exlover by literally letting the character eat pieces of her lovers letter as if it were food that could satiate her hunger for passion. In other words， Chopin is comfortable to establish the link between hunger and emotional expression for her fictional characters. As mentioned earlier， the female body can be viewed by feminist critics as both confining and liberating. The bodily sensations described by Chopin here confirm the liberating side of the female body.
Female Biology and Entrapment
One can also inspect Chopin in regard to womans biology so as to understand the relationship between the female body and entrapment in her work. In this section， three aspects of female biology will be examined： mental illness，Statistically， women are twice more likely to suffer from depression than men (Gotlib and Hammen 86). sexuality， and pregnancy. First， mental illness plays an important part in contributing to the entrapment of the protagonist. As early as the beginning of the novel， one can get a sense of the protagonists unstable mood. Although retaining an image of a happy wife， Edna sometimes bursts into tears for no apparent reason. The omniscient narrator tells readers that Edna at the time cannot very well understand her own emotions：The tears came so fast to Mrs. Pontelliers eyes that the damp sleeve of her peignoir no longer served to dry them. She was holding the back of her chair with one hand； her loose sleeve had slipped almost to the shoulder of her uplifted arm. Turning， she thrust her face， steaming and wet， into the bend of her arm， and she went on crying there， not caring any longer to dry her face， her eyes， her arms. She could not have told why she was crying. Such experiences as the foregoing were not uncommon in her married life. (9)The narrator offers some clue to Ednas depressed mood. As readers， we learn that “[a]n indescribable oppression， which seemed to generate in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness， filled her whole being with a vague anguish. It was like a shadow， like a mist passing across her souls summer day. It was strange and unfamiliar； it was a mood” (9). The “indescribable oppression” in the above sentences quoted from the novel can be linked to Ednas lack in autonomy to exercise her free will. Ednas condition can be attributed to the modern medical term depression. According to Dianne Hales， “the disease of depression persists and deepens over several weeks or months. No bad mood feels quite so miserable， lasts so long， or seems so endless...depression affects the body as well as the mind， trapping its victims in a bleak cocoon of hopelessness and helplessness” (18). In Women and Madness， Phyllis Chesler notes that for women， “depression” rather than “aggression” is often their response to disappointment or loss in life (102).
Being a fulltime housewife， Ednas depressed mood fits into Betty Friedans description in her book The Feminine Mystique which was written more than half a century after The Awakening. Friedan calls the illness or neuroses as “the problem that has no name”.I talked to women who had spent years on the analysts couch， working out their “adjustment to the feminine role，” their blocks to “fulfillment as a wife and mother.” But the desperate tone in these womens voices， and the look in their eyes， was the same as the tone and the look of other women， who were sure they had no problem， even though they did have a strange feeling of desperation. (Friedan 21)The women Friedan refers to are middleclass housewives who lived in American suburban areas in the middle of the twentieth century. Friedan points out that these women are not sure about their identity， namely， “who am I” (21). One of Friedans arguments sounds extremely like the comments on Ednas feeling in The Awakening： “How can any woman see the whole truth within the bounds of her own life? How can she believe that voice inside herself， when it denies the conventional， accepted truths by which she has been living?” (31). Therefore， in her book， Friedan calls people to pay more attention to the voice within women who are not fulfilled solely by the roles of wife and mother： “I want something more than my husband and my children and my home” (32). Friedan suggests work or career as a solution to the despondency and depression suffered by these suburban wives， and she also argues that work can help housewives define their identities other than wives and mothers. In The Awakening， Edna turns to painting， which can be construed as a type of parttime work or career. By turning to art and moving out of her home， Edna starts to embark on a quest for self. From another angle， Chopin has touched “the problem that has no name” half a century ahead of Friedan. To put it another way， the problem Chopin describes in her novel has persisted across the centuries.
By leading her life according to her caprice and free will， Edna feels both liberated and confused. There are days she feels very happy and days she is very unhappy. And she does not know the reasons for her mood swing. Chopin describes Ednas state as follows：She was happy to be alive and breathing， when her whole being seemed to be one with the sunlight， the color， the odors， the luxuriant warmth of some perfect Southern day...And she found it good to dream and to be alone and unmolested. There were days when she was unhappy， she did not know why，— when it did not seem worth while to be glad or sorry， to be alive or dead； when life appeared to her like a grotesque pandemonium and humanity like worms struggling blindly toward inevitable annihilation. (8889)Edna is awakened from her ignorant and conforming mind. But such enlightenment comes at a cost. By waking up to the beauty and hope of life， Edna also has to face the possibility of despondency and futility of life. Ednas alternating state between happiness and unhappiness shows both the benefits and curses of enlightenment. Ednas eyes are opened by her awakening and the newly gained knowledge， but it breeds discontentment and grief as well.
In Ednas process of waking up， Mr. Pontelliers apprehension over her， from another angle， confirms her change and quest for autonomy. Mr. Pontellier is so disturbed at his wifes change that he goes to seek the family physician， Doctor Mandelet. Mr. Pontellier is conscious that something is wrong with his wife， but he is unable to pinpoint the problem. “‘Yes， yes； she seems quite well，’ said Mr. Pontellier...‘but she doesnt act well. Shes odd， shes not like herself. I cant make her out， and I thought perhaps youd help me’” (100). Chopin herself had been intimate friends with her family physician； therefore， it is not surprising that Doctor Mandelet has been portrayed as an understanding physician who comprehends Edna better than the rest of the people in the novel.“Pontellier，” said the Doctor， after a moments reflection， “let your wife alone for a while. Dont bother her， and dont let her bother you. Woman， my dear friend， is a very peculiar and delicate organism—a sensitive and highly organized woman， such as I know Mrs. Pontellier to be， is especially peculiar. It would require an inspired psychologist to deal successfully with them. And when ordinary fellows like you and me attempt to cope with their idiosyncrasies the result is bungling. Most women are moody and whimsical. This is some passing whim of your wife， due to some cause or causes which you and I neednt try to fathom. But it will pass happily over， especially if you let her alone. Send her around to see me.” (101102)Doctor Mandelet at first cannot but fall into the “conventional wisdom” of viewing women as a “peculiar and delicate” sex and prone to unsteady moods and changing whims. Nevertheless， he is wise to suggest Mr. Pontellier that he should try to give his wife enough space. In the nineteenth century， a considerable number of women were diagnosed as having mood disorders or even committed to hospital， as suggested by E. Showalter in The Female Malady. Jane Wood also notes that the term “hysteria” rose to a new prominence in nineteenthcentury America： “[h]ysteria， the archetypal female nervous disorder， rose to a new prominence in the nineteenth century as a condition whose clinical criteria could be modified in order to diagnose all the behaviors which did not fit the prescribed model of Victorian womanhood” (12). Is a woman mad if she does not conform to the conventional ideology of her time? Chopin does not use medical science as a means of persecution in the novel for her women characters， as Charlotte Perkins Gilman does in The Yellow Wallpaper (1892)； nevertheless， she points out the psychological changes of a woman when she tries to disregard social conventions in order to discover her authentic self.
Ednas alternating mood is symbolically associated with the weather， which may lead one to suspect if it has something to do with seasonal affective disorder (SAD).Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a type of depression that is tied to seasons of the year. Most people with SAD are depressed only during the late fall and winter (sometimes called the “winter blues”) and not during the spring or summer. A small number， however， are depressed only during the late spring and summer. Retrieved from http：\/\/www.emedicinehealth.com\/seasonal_depression_sad\/article_em.htm on Dec. 7， 2010.When the weather was dark and cloudy Edna could not work. She needed the sun to mellow and temper her mood to the sticking point...On rainy or melancholy days Edna went out and sought the society of the friends she had made at Grand Isle. Or else she stayed indoors and nursed a mood with which she was becoming too familiar for her own comfort and peace of mind. It was not despair； but it seemed to her as if life were passing by， leaving its promise broken and unfulfilled. Yet there were other days when she listened， was led on and deceived by fresh promises which her youth held out to her. (11213)The narrators pessimism toward her protagonists chance of success is shown in the paragraph quoted above. Although these sentences appear in two thirds of the novel， one can already foresee the tragic ending of the story. Ednas mood alternates between hope and despondency. Ednas despondency reminds one of the two sisters in The Morgesons. Feeling that she has failed in her quest for selfhood， Cassandra falls into despondency while facing the sea. Veronica， on the other hand， suffers illness and mood swings intermittently in her growing up.
Ednas mood， if taken seriously， may also be labelled by using the modern medical term bipolar depression.“Manic depression， which therapists refer to as bipolar illness， is the most dramatic mood disorder. Its victims moods swing from depression to the opposite extreme—euphoria” (Hales 40). This leads one to question why they were so many mental illnesses among women in the nineteenth century. Elaine Showalter points out that in nineteenthcentury Britain， mental illness was so much more common among females than males that the illness was termed as “the female malady”. According to Phyllis Chesler， most women committed to asylums in nineteenthcentury America were not “insane” (62). It is difficult to explain exactly why mental illnesses were found more prevalent among women than men. However， one explanation can be linked to the pervasive feeling of entrapment and vulnerability felt by women. Unable to change the worlds they are trapped in， both Edna and Cassandra suffer from hopeless despondency. Indeed， The Awakening and The Morgesons show one difference sometimes occurring between male and female writers， i.e. women writers tend to dive deeper into the emotional realms of their female characters.It cannot be assumed that for all women writers， but in the case of Kate Chopin， it is the case. The unstable moods imply problems with Ednas present state of life. In the novel the narrator suggests that Edna is not striving toward accomplishment； rather， she draws satisfaction from the process of working itself. Without a clear purpose and blindly following her own caprices， Edna has not benefited greatly from the autonomy she gains toward a clear understanding of selfhood.
Roberts return from Mexico further aggravates Ednas unstable mood. His return both gives Edna hope and quickens her death. The disappointment with Roberts failing to call on her causes Edna to fall prey to her oscillating moods. “Each morning she awoke with hope， and each night she was a prey to despondency” (160). Edna believes she has the right to choose the man she loves without moral judgment or the duty caused by her marriage.The morning was full of sunlight and hope. Edna could see before her no denial—only the promise of excessive joy...She felt she had been childish and unwise the night before in giving herself over to despondency. She recapitulated the motives which no doubt explained Roberts reserve. They were not insurmountable； they would not hold if he really loved her； they could not hold against her own passion， which he must come to realize in time...But how delicious it would be to have him there with her! She would have no regrets， nor seek to penetrate his reserve if he still chose to wear it. (159)Edna fails to realize that her despondency is not entirely caused by the absence of Robert； it is also due to her confusion about the world and her place in it. Edna tries to use love and passion to dilute her despondency toward life， which only plunges her into deeper despair in the future. The narrator comments that all sense of reality has gone out of Ednas present life， and she abandons herself to Fate， “and awaited the consequences with indifference” (160).
One of the ultimate and most devastating consequences of depression is to attempt suicide and the possibility of death.“No conscious action is more final or more absolute than suicide. It leaves no time for regrets or second thoughts. It is， quite simply， the end” (Hale 60). Edna， ultimately， chooses this solution. Edna is set free by her awakening， yet her awakening leads her to depression. One can argue that depression may have existed before Ednas awakening， but her awakening certainly worsens her condition， making it unbearable for her， which finally leads to her voluntary choice of death. Is Ednas death a triumph of her free will against the entrapment she feels， or is it a consequence of her depression and hopelessness? Chopin remains ambivalent about offering a definite answer， which is consistent with the ambivalent stance she assumes in her works.
Apart from writing on entrapment caused by mental illness， Chopin has also touched upon womans sexuality in her novel. Unlike Chopins contemporary critics who criticized the novel for its immorality， Chopin in effect does not present sexuality as a way out of the present predicament for women characters in her novel. Thus， it can be assumed that Chopin does not think that the liberation of sexuality or lust can liberate woman from her confinement； instead， it can plunge woman deeper into her confusion and disillusionment. In the novel， Edna is blinded both by her infatuation with Robert and her lust with Arobin.
Infatuation traps Edna in her own daydreaming. When explaining to Mademoiselle Reisz her love for Robert， Edna says： “Because his [Roberts] hair is brown and grows away from his temples； because he opens and shuts his eyes， and his nose is a little out of drawing； because he has two lips and a square chin， and a little finger which he cant straighten from having played baseball too energetically in his youth” (125). Here Edna talks about her love as if she were sixteen. Blinded by her infatuation， Edna fails to notice the ordinary calibre of Robert. In other words， Edna fails to realize that Robert is in essence no different from her husband in that he too follows conventional Victorian ideology regarding marriage and women. Ednas failure in discerning the incompatibility between herself and Robert as well as her ignorance of reality and social pressures doom her quest for love.
Moreover， Edna falls prey to the temptation of Arobin. Chopin purposely introduces the character of Arobin in twothirds of the structure of the novel， in order to disrupt Ednas newfound solitude and autonomy. Alcée Arobin is a notorious womanizer. “He was a familiar figure at the race course， the opera， the fashionable clubs. There was a perpetual smile in his eyes， which seldom failed to awaken a corresponding cheerfulness in any one who looked into them and listened to his goodhumored voice” (113). Before meeting Edna， he has had other affairs with married women. Arobin tries to seduce Edna with sugarcoated comments and sensuality， which the narrator sarcastically comments as： “Alcée Arobins manner was so genuine that it often deceived even himself” (119).
It should be noted that before writing The Awakening， Chopin also wrote several short stories on the theme of triangular or extramarital affairs， such as “A Respectable Woman”. As mentioned before， Chopins courage to pick up these topics may be in part influenced by her reading of French writers， such as Flaubert and de Maupassant. Chopins short stories have led her to contemplate the emotional aspects of married women， and prepared in particular for unveiling the complicated aspects of Ednas emotional life in The Awakening.
The character， Arobin， in some way reminds one of another notorious womanizer， Rodolphe Boulanger， in Gustave Flauberts Madame Bovary (1857). Both men are similar in age； both are shrewd， lustful， and experienced in seducing women. Being familiar with French literature and language， Chopin has read some of Flauberts works. In The Awakening， the narrator comments： “Her husband seemed to her now like a person whom she had married without love as an excuse” (119). This suggests Ednas confusion toward relationships， and implies her future ruin. Edna falls prey to sensuality induced by Arobin， although she knows Arobin means nothing for her. Edna longs for Robert， yet the latter is far away from her in Mexico. Likewise in Madame Bovary， Emma Bovary， the protagonist， falls under the spell of Rodolphe even though she misses another man， Léon， who is away in Paris.
Edna substitutes her longing for Robert with Arobin， just like Emma who substitutes her longing for Léon with Rodolphe. Arobin fills the void left by Robert. “They became intimate and friendly by imperceptible degrees， and then by leaps. He sometimes talked in a way that astonished her at first and brought the crimson into her face； in a way that pleased her at last， appealing to the animalism that stirred impatiently within her” (120). Chopin uses the word “animalism” in the above paragraph， which might link her to naturalism. It is known Chopin read and was impressed by Darwins theory of evolution. Bert Bender notes that Chopin revered Darwin， and believed his theory of evolution in The Origin of Species； however， Chopin disagreed with Darwins view on the inferiority of women in sexual selection： “his theory of the females modesty， her passivity in the sex drama as a creature without desire” (Bender 100). In other words， Darwins view is similar to the Victorian morals on the passivity or passionlessness of women， which Chopin does not agree with. Moreover， there are contradictions within the Victorian notion of womanhood. Carroll SmithRosenberg notes：Woman， Victorian society dictated， was to be chaste， delicate， and loving. Yet her Victorian contemporaries assumed that behind this modest exterior lay a complex network of reproductive organs that controlled her physiology， determined her emotions， and dictated her social role. She was seen， that is， as being both higher and lower， both innocent and animal， pure yet quintessentially sexual. (65)In the above paragraph， SmithRosenberg also uses the term “animal”. Here it can only be assumed that Chopin may have caught this contradiction within the prevailing Victorian notion of womanhood. The association with Arobin offers Edna no real autonomy or awareness of self. Arobins presence acts more like a narcotic on the protagonist. Comparing The Awakening with Madame Bovary， Per Seyersted suggests that “Ednas revolt against her conventional roles as a wife and mother and against her biological destiny is naturally more representative for the female than the male mind”， and he sees The Awakening as a womans reply to a mans Madame Bovary (138).
Chopin suggests that Ednas awakening of identity is associated with her awakening of sensuality. Edna eventually yields to Arobins seduction.She felt as if a mist had been lifted from her eyes， enabling her to took upon and comprehend the significance of life， that monster made up of beauty and brutality. But among the conflicting sensations which assailed her， there was neither shame nor remorse. There was a dull pang of regret because it was not the kiss of love which had inflamed her， because it was not love which had held this cup of life to her lips. (12829)This is an important paragraph， not far from Ednas eventual suicide. Victorian critics were shocked at Ednas lack of moral judgment on her behaviour. Edna has betrayed her authenticity and heart， and replaced love with physical desire and lust.Avril Horner thinks that“[t]he fact that Chopins characters often fail in their quests to realize an essence of self anticipates a major preoccupation of twentycentury fiction： that the awakening of the sexual self is often accompanied by a sense of internal division and by feelings of turmoil and alienation” (14445). Here Horner is commenting on the relationship between female sexuality and authenticity. I agree with Homers conclusion that the sexual awakening in Chopins novel only plunges her heroine toward deeper and darker waters.
Ednas autonomy comes at a price both outwardly and inwardly. By moving to the pigeon house alone and associating with Arobin， Edna risks her reputation. Madame Ratignolle warns Edna the danger of associating with Arobin. However， Edna does not seem to mind. Edna at the time has completely abandoned other peoples judgments on her. She wants to live an authentic life， truthful to herself. However， Edna is wishful in her thinking. In her time and society， she cannot escape unscathed the societal values and judgments， nor can she abandon her duty completely as a wife and mother， and expect to be left alone. If one looks at the historical background at the time， they will find that the notion of Victorian femininity was encouraged on both sides of the Atlantic. According to Ellen Jordan， in 1868 one speaker at a Social Science Congress in Britain claimed： “The duties of a wife and mother...were the noblest ends of a womans life， and everything that encroached on them...should be looked on as an evil disease， and utterly eradicated” (54). Similarly， in the novel Madame Ratignolle comments on Edna apprehensively： “In some way you seem to me like a child， Edna. You seem to act without a certain amount of reflection which is necessary in this life” (147). Madame Ratignolles comment points to the disastrous consequence Edna will run into when she abandons the societys expectations for a married woman.
In addition， Ednas attitude toward her husband and her marriage is problematic. Edna realizes that she made a mistake by marrying her husband， yet she does nothing to fix it. Instead， the loveless marriage becomes the excuse to justify her relationship with Arobin. Edna asserts her autonomy by associating with men she chooses regardless of the bounds of marriage. Such an attitude is problematic and certain to create troubles in a conservative Victorian society. Commenting on Ednas falling prey to her awakening sensuality and becoming another of Arobins conquests of seduction， Per Seyersted suggests the term “the curse of freedom”. Surely he is not the first one to think of it. “What pains Edna is her realization that the idea of the great passion with its lofty， personal attachment， its oneness with the beloved is largely a fiction， a euphemistic disguise for a basically sexual attraction， an animalistic， impersonal drive” (Seyersted 147). In terms of Ednas awakening， Chopin daringly includes womans sexuality. It seems to Chopin a persons awakening needs to cover all the areas， both spiritual and physical. However， as mentioned before， Chopin does not suggest that sexual awakening can bring woman true liberation. Therefore， sexual liberation or lust cannot lead Edna out of her sense of entrapment.
The openness of Chopins texts stems both from her adherence to authenticity and her unwillingness to preach and judge in accordance to the prevailing moral codes. Janet Beer thinks that the cultural imperatives “of Chopins time and place were in favor of the indissolubility of the marriage contract and the containment of womens sexuality within its boundaries”， and “Chopin examines the breaches in those boundaries” in her works (42). Likewise， commenting on Chopins short stories that touch on womens sexuality， Bernard Koloski states： “It is such a sense of possession， of repossession， that flows through Chopins short fiction—mostly Southern， mostly rural， mostly poor， mostly female. Chopin offers her readers not an ideology， not a coherent system for remaking the social world， but a strategy， a way of working with what she has， of bringing to life what she knows” (13). Here both Beer and Koloski reiterate Chopins adherence to authenticity of human existence and her daringness to tread on controversial issues， especially in terms of triangular relationships and extramarital issues. Whatever Chopins personal attitude may have been， she is not condemning the characters in her works in either way.
Apart from writing on mental illness and sexuality， Chopin also touches on womens pregnancy and the ensuing labour in The Awakening. She purposefully places the scene of labour toward the end of the novel after Ednas full awakening， in order to strengthen its effect on the protagonist. Witnessing the labour of Madame Ratignolle causes Edna to rebel against Nature. The pain suffered by a woman in the process of giving birth causes Edna uneasiness and aversion toward Nature.But Madame only set her teeth hard into her under lip， and Edna saw the sweat gather in beads on her white forehead. After a moment or two she uttered a profound sigh and wiped her face with the handkerchief rolled in a ball. She appeared exhausted...Edna began to feel uneasy. She was seized with a vague dread. Her own life experiences seemed far away， unreal， and only half remembered. She recalled faintly an ecstasy of pain， the heavy odor of chloroform， a stupor which had deadened sensation， and an awakening to find a little new life to which she had given being， added to the great unnumbered multitude of souls that come and go... With an inward agony， with a flaming， outspoken revolt against the ways of Nature， she witnessed the scene of torture. (16869)Witnessing the scene of labour， Edna is averse to the painful process of birth. She realizes not only the pain associated with birth， but also the futility of new life. Ewell thinks that Edna can abandon her marriage， but she cannot ignore her children： “She can challenge the social obstacles to her new selfhood， but she is powerless against the ‘ways of nature’” (152). In other words， Edna is powerless to change the destined course of female biology.
The experience of witnessing Madame Ratignolles birth causes Edna to reflect on life and her awakening. Edna becomes more entrenched in her belief that nobody has the right to bend another persons will， not even children.“The trouble is，” sighed the Doctor [Mandelet]， grasping her meaning intuitively， “that youth is given up to illusions. It seems to be a provision of Nature； a decoy to secure mothers for the race. And Nature takes no account of moral consequences， of arbitrary conditions which we create， and which we feel obliged to maintain at any cost.”
“Yes，” she said. “The years that are gone seem like dreams—if one might go on sleeping and dreaming—but to wake up and find—oh! well! perhaps it is better to wake up after all， even to suffer， rather than to remain a dupe to illusions all ones life.” (171)The dialogue between the Doctor and Edna again suggests the power of Nature over women. The biological destination of motherhood is irreversible and inevitable. Witnessing the sufferings on the part of women， Edna concludes that it is better to wake up and suffer than to remain ignorant about life and to follow social expectations. Despite all the sufferings and despondency she is subjected to， Edna now realizes that she does not want anything but her own way， unobstructed by anybodys will.
In The Second Sex， de Beauvoir touches upon womans biology， and regards womans body as one form of confinement. When looking at womans body， de Beauvoir notes the ambivalence in the way some women regard it. To some women， the body is a burden. De Beauvoir thinks that a woman can interpret her body in a negative way， and feels entrapped by her biology： “She is doomed to repetition， she sees in the future only a duplication of the past...the cycle of each pregnancy， each flowering， exactly reproduces the one that proceeded. In this play of cyclical phenomena the sole effect of time is a slow deterioration” (610). For de Beauvoir the biological aspect of a woman can be depressing. It seems that a womans body can doom her to a life of repetition without transcendence.
Julia Kristeva also writes about the challenges a womans biology， in particular motherhood， poses to a womans independence of soul. Kristeva thinks that pregnancy can lead to possible entrapment of souls among mothers. She argues that pregnancy fundamentally challenges a womans sense of self， and it is easy for a woman to forget herself before her child. In order to preserve an independent and creative self， she stresses that woman should not annihilate her “affective， intellectual and professional personality” in the process of maternity (364). Kristeva does not think women in the past had dealt well with the conflict between self and maternity； nevertheless， she is optimistic about the future.
Different from de Beauvoir who considers pregnancy a form of confinement， Kristeva suggests that woman can preserve her selfhood in the process of maternity. Despite different views espoused by feminist critics toward womans biology， there is the ground for the argument that womans biology can indeed lead to entrapment， if not necessarily so. Therefore， if a woman fails to deal adequately well with her biology， such as Edna in The Awakening， her biology can lead her to a hopeless sense of entrapment.
Ⅲ. Solutions to End Female Entrapment
This section aims at answering the third question： what solutions have been offered in the novel to free women characters from their entrapment? In The Awakening， Chopin altogether offers three options for her protagonist to break away from her situation of entrapment. The options are art， solitude， and suicide. In this section， I would argue that art and solitude serve as temporary solutions whereas suicide becomes the ultimate resort.
It is through Mademoiselle Reiszs music that Edna is firstly shaken. Edna is fond of music， but Mademoiselle Reiszs music wakes her up from a slumber and infuses her with strong stirs of emotions.The very first chords which Mademoiselle Reisz struck upon the piano sent a keen tremor down Mrs. Pontelliers spinal column. It was not the first time she had heard an artist at the piano. Perhaps it was the first time she was ready， perhaps the first time her being was tempered to take an impress of the abiding truth...But the very passions themselves were aroused within her soul， swaying it， lashing it， as the waves daily beat upon her splendid body. She trembled， she was choking， and the tears blinded her. (39)After Mademoiselle Reiszs play， Edna is unable to speak， and she “pressed the hand of the pianist convulsively” (39). Music is a theme that Chopin is interested in exploring. To Chopin， music has a powerful influence on the human heart. For example， in her short story “With the Violin”， Chopin describes a similar experience. “Oh! But it [music] was soft and exquisite， and it sent a quiver through the frame of the poor wretch who heard it...He at the table sat spellbound” (69). The description of the sensations caused by music in the short story is almost exactly like the one felt by Edna. Chopin associates music with the power of enlightenment. In anther short story “Mrs. Mobrys Reason”， through the mouth of one character， Chopin comments on music as： “I feel as if the Truth were going to come to me， some day， through the harmony of it [music]” (73). In The Awakening， Edna cannot fathom the exact reason for which Mademoiselle Reiszs music has moved her， but she is stirred and enlightened by her music. Thus， Mademoiselle Reiszs music marks the prelude to Ednas first stage of waking up.
Apart from introducing the powerful auditory quality of art， i.e. music， Chopin also includes the visual aspect of art， i.e. painting. In Ednas second stage of awakening， art facilitates her and gives her a sense of achievement and independence. Edna is able to sell some of her paintings and receive both encouragement and financial rewards. The encouragement from her agent gives Edna confidence in her ability to paint； while the money received from the sales enables Edna to think of renting a house on her own. “I know I shall like it， like the feeling of freedom and independence” (122). Chopin explicitly uses words such as “freedom” and “independence” to characterize Ednas feeling. Artistic achievement and economic independence can enable a woman to search for an independent self， unencumbered by the roles of wife and mother.
At the same time， however， Chopin makes it clear that in the case of Edna， she cannot become the artist like Mademoiselle Reisz. Edna has neither the talent nor the strength it requires to become a great artist. Initially Edna enjoys dabbling in her spare time. Then she starts to paint. Although she can sell some of her paintings， she knows that her paintings lack the high quality great pieces of art have. Mademoiselle Reisz tells Edna that “[t]he bird that would soar above the level plain of tradition and prejudice must have strong wings. It is a sad spectacle to see the weaklings bruised， exhausted， fluttering back to earth” (127). Mademoiselle Reisz knows the talent， courage， and strength it takes to truly become a great woman artist. Edna， however， fails to perceive the formers warning， nor to realize the endurance it takes on the road toward artisthood. Chopin is not the first writer to use the metaphor of the soaring bird. Margaret Fuller in Woman in the Nineteenth Century has already used the image of a bird with its wings clipped. Although it is unclear whether Chopin had read Fuller or not， in the novel Mademoiselle Reiszs analogy and prediction of a bruised and exhausted weakling fluttering back to earth unfortunately becomes true of Ednas fate in the end. In other words， art is not the feasible and sustainable solution for Ednas independence， either economically or spiritually. It provides the protagonist with an outlet， and no more.
The second option to end Ednas confinement is solitude. The Awakening was originally named as “A Solitary Soul”. Solitude is a very important theme in the novel. Chopins thoughts on solitude stem from the influences of both Maupassant and George Sand. Maupassant wrote one short story entitled “Solitude”， which embodies the theme that one cannot escape the isolation of self. In the short story， Maupassant comments on the relationship between solitude and love as follows：I have endured the anguish of having discovered and understood the solitude in which I live. And I know that nothing can end it； nothing! Whatever we may do or attempt， despite the embraces and transports of love， the hunger of lips， we are always alone....I feel as if I were sinking day by day into some boundless subterranean depth， with no one near me， no other living soul to clasp my outstretched， groping hands.Thomas Bonner， The Kate Chopin Companion， 19596.In The Awakening， Chopin expresses similar sentiments that human beings are essentially alone. Elizabeth Nolan thinks that “[t]oward the end of the novel， Edna Pontelllier recognizes the fragility and impermanence of human relationships” (122)， and she comments on the difference between Chopin and Maupassant as： “Chopin， then， subverts genre， formally and thematically， by placing the womans experience at the heart of her text and constituting her as the subject of the narrative. Maupassant， however， had little interest in the female experience. Mary DonaldsonEvans argues that in his writings， women become merely the site on which male fears and desires are played out” (123). Nolan is keen to observe the difference in emphasis between the two writers when approaching the same theme of solitude. Yet if one ignores the difference of gender in Maupassants and Chopins works， one may find that both writers hold essentially similar attitudes toward solitude.