In the article Teaching as a Creative Activity: Why Can Workshop Work in Creative Writing?, Anna Leahy mentioned that: \\\"The deep structure of creative writing is the theory and practice summarized through teaching experience. As a result, amateur workshops may arise and free discussion may be conducted, but it is best to understand the writing process behind the theory and practice. It is a methodology.” ［57］ She also pointed out: “If the creative writing teacher only defines the workshop as a creative classroom— just like editing the works of peers in the course, rather than as a teaching style, then the teachers won\\u0027t absorb the energy of the workshop, which goes beyond academic courses and encourages students to make great progress. ” ［58］ However, some people have doubts about the \\\"Workshop\\\". Paul Perry argued in his book Beyond the Workshop: Creative Writing, Theory and Practice that the Workshop is conducive to the development of cooperative ideas, but not conducive to the writer\\u0027s achievement of the deepest quality of individual personality.
This shows that the creative writing workshop is by no means a small interest class or a teaching class. It is a workshop led and controlled by experts who deeply understand the rules of creation and master the methodology. The workshop is a complex field, which involves equal discourse power in the discussion process, the ordering in the organization process, the absorption of different points of view, the creation of a free and relaxed atmosphere, etc. However, the biggest criticism of the workshop system is still its suppression of the writer\\u0027s personality. In the eyes of many people, writing is still an individual act, and others will only interfere with and affect the inspiration of individual writing. In fact, the workshop does not exclude individuality, but encourages different individuals to make up for the whole deficiency.
(2)\\\"Process Writing-Pedagogy\\\" is the main teaching idea throughout the practice form of \\\"Workshop\\\". And Writing: Six Steps of Guidance from Beginning to End by Kate Grenville is the most famous one, which applies the process teaching method. These six steps are: getting ideas, screening, outlining, writing , inspecting and publishing. Xu Daojun believes that the \\\"process writing-pedagogy\\\" of English creative writing is generally divided into five related stages: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing. He considers the process pedagogy in this way: \\\"Creative writing is not a simple combination of language, paragraphs, chapters, skills, and rhetoric, but includes the entire process of creativity, conception, writing and repeated revisions, which extends the writing activities to the upstream links that are ignored or not paid attention to in traditional writing activities. In the downstream links of writing and revision, creativity is also constantly generated and revised. Revision is a cycle of students’ creative activities, writing activities, and cognitive activities. In other words, writing is actually re-writing.\\\"［59］
In the past, writing teaching did not pay attention to the upstream and downstream links, while the process writing method took all the links into consideration. The starting point of \\\"process writing- pedagogy\\\" is practice. Only in writing practice can it cause various problems. Everyone may encounter different problems, and the links and steps of the problem are also different. It is the most basic pragmatic attitude of \\\"process writing-pedagogy\\\" to find and solve problems in writing practice.
4、Research on the Classification and Genre of Writing
1、Research on Classified Writing
At present, the more common classification of creative writing in the world is： fiction, non-fiction and poetry. And the main courses of MFA in most countries are these three categories. The first is the research on fiction writing, which takes Now Write! Nonfiction by Sherry Ellis as one of the representatives . The author advocates searching for material from feeling and memory, then improving narrative skills through the grasp of perspective, person, psychological distance, and finally improving the level of fiction fundamentally by enhancing conflict and drama, creating intricate time, and grasping plot and rhythm. Another book is Writing Fiction: A Guide to Narrative Craft by Janet Burroway. The book provides a comprehensive guide to the writing of fiction from the aspects of the writing process, showing rather than telling, creating characters and their personalities, novel space and time, form and plot, perspective, rewriting and so on.
The second is the research on non-fiction writing. Based on in-depth research on creative writing masters, including top biographers, journalists, and non-fiction novelists, Now Write! Nonfiction by Shirley Ellis mainly describes the non-fiction writing methodology. She believes that non-fiction writers should focus on the authenticity of the event, and find the reliable materials include pictures, paintings, memories, memorial albums, memoirs, etc., and then visualize and characterize the characters by understanding their motives, and finally complete the non-fiction creation. Another book is Story Crafts: the Complete Guide to Writing Narrative Nonfiction by Jack Hart, who believes: \\\"A wonderful story is drawn and assembled by writers and editors from specific reality. They not only need to understand the abstract principles of story creation, but also how to use them flexibly. The source of the story is not important. When we study cases, the location of the story is far less important than the narration of the story.\\\" ［60］ Hart reveals the narrative essentials of non-fiction stories from the aspects of structure, perspective, sound and style, characters, scenes, actions, dialogues, themes, and moral standards of the story. In addition, another representative is Harper Collins\\u0027 Writing Creative Nonfiction: The Literature of Reality.
The third is the research on poetry writing. A more representative work is Poetry Writing: The Expert Guide by Fiona Sampson. In this book, the author points out the potential of people from all aspects, including poetic personality, creative disobedience, and five senses. Then he analyzes the technical factors in poetry, including metaphor and similarity, shaping and transformation, clarification, rhythm and non- rhythm, high and low, quotation of famous sentences, etc. Finally, the issues of revising and translating poetry, ideal readers, and narrative language are also mentioned. This guide covers poetry writing and the cultivation of poetic personality. In addition, there is another book, Poetry in the making-A handbook for writing and teaching, which contains the issues of poetry teaching.
As the three main courses of MFA for creative writing, there are a lot of researches in these three categories, which seem to be very similar. Because all of them are interlinked. But if we study these works carefully, we will find that every writer will bring his own unique experience into such works. Each writer has different understanding to the same perspective, conflict, and metaphor, and all these provide various possibilities for writing. If conflict patterns and perspectives are all the same, then creative writing is truly a mechanical reproduction. And what we trained is copiers instead of writers. Therefore, it is precisely the writer\\u0027s unique experience projected on these terms that reactivates these terms and gives them new connotations.
2、Research on Different Genres of Writing
On the basis of the general category of creative writing, it is divided into many genres by the subject, which we called \\\"writing by genres\\\". These include historical fiction writing, such as Writing Historical Fiction; science fiction writing, such as The Road to Science fiction (Trilogy); travel writing, such as Issues in Travel Writing ——Empire, Spectable, and Displacement; writing of age group, including How to Write for Children, How to Write for Teenagers and Children\\u0027s Writers\\u0027 Yearbook; TV comedy writing (also known as sitcom), such as The Craft of Writing TV Comedy; radio writing, such as Writing and Producing Radio Dreams. It also includes romantic novel writing, horror novel writing, animal writing, food writing, etc. There are also some that are difficult to classify, such as visual writing, represented by Writing as a Visual Art. Life writing, represented by Living Narrative-Creating Lives In Everyday Storytelling. Script dialogue writing, represented by Writing Dialogue Scripts-Effective Dialogue for Film, TV, Radio, and Stage. Non-Sexist writing, represented by The guide of Non-Sexist Writing for Writers, Editors and Speakers.
We find that one of the manifestations of Western creative writing being more academic is that the research on \\\"writing by genres\\\" becomes more and more detailed, and even sub-body is divided under the genre. Writing by genres is the requirement of literary typology and the result of knowledge differentiation. Nowadays, knowledge differentiation is becoming more and more serious, and simple professional knowledge of literature is increasingly unable to meet the needs of literary creation, so it is necessary to study the knowledge of other professional fields. From this point of view, every type of writing is a kind of research writing. In fact, domestic fiction research of types is more similar to foreign writing research of genres. Shanghai University has published a series of domestic novel typology and genre fiction research series, including historical novels, official novels, detective novels, etc. However, the study of domestic genre novels is still based on criticism and appreciation, which can not be regarded as a theoretical study of novel creation.
5、Other Research on Creative Writing
In addition to the above research, foreign creative writing research also includes research on new media, community, creative writing research methods, etc.
1、Research on the Relationship Between Creative Writing and New Media
A more representative study is A Better Pencil: Readers, Writers, and the Digital Revolution by Baron Dennis. In the book, the author analyzes the advantages and the dark side of network writing. The advantage is that you can create your own unique space. The dark side is that \\\"once you start writing online, people both can act themselves and reshape themselves. Network victims re-play themselves in the popular Second Life Promises on the website, digitally enhancing the simulated world of their lives\\\" ［61］①. Brown is obviously worried about the living conditions of online writers. However, Meadows Daniel, in Digital storytelling: Research-based Practice in New Media, defines the identity of digital storytellers like this: \\\"Digital storytellers believe that they confirm their identity in storytelling, communities, and individuals, and escape from the dominant illusion created by the mass media. Digital storytelling has attracted attention from all walks of life. ”［62］ He also believes: “ New media offers new chance for journalism talents, script writing and visual skills. A new media project contains huge profits and powerful marketing themes.”［63］We found that cultural researchers believe that the huge illusion created by mass media has blinded the facts, while creative writing can escape this illusion by participating in the creation of digital stories, because they understand the context of these stories and thus have a clearer understanding of their own living conditions.
2、Research on the Relationship between Creative Writing and Community
Blythe Hal pointed out in The Writing Community: A New Model for the Creative Writing Classroom, \\\"there are many positive aspects of community writing. Students can not only learn from experts, but they can also be so close to their role models. With this rule, writing apprentices can more carefully select what they want to learn from the certified physicians and master carpenters. Therefore, experts and writers in different fields,and agents and editors can get to know each other, so that they can provide students with a more immediate interpersonal relationship.\\\" ［64］ Community writing can encourage students to get out of the classroom and gain a richer life experience. Another important book is MFA VS NYC-The Two Cultures of American Fiction, which studies the writing atmosphere and culture of the \\\"New York Writers Center\\\" (NYC). The biggest feature of this culture is communitization, which is different from the institutionalization of universities. The effectiveness of creative writing in the community is mutually beneficial. Many people think that creative writing into the community is to write memoirs for the elderly and provide spiritual assistance for them. In fact, creative writing students can expand their life experience, writing materials, and change writing ideas by entering the community to collect stories. Moreover, the instant interpersonal relationships provided in the community can help writers communicate better and publish works on the realistic level.
3、Research on the Study Methods of Creative Writing
In recent years, some scholars have called for the establishment of an academic discipline of creative writing studies, which has been embodied in the doctoral thesis Establishing Creative Writing Studies as an Academic Discipline published by Donnelly Dianne of the University of South Florida in 2009. \\\"New Writing Viewpoints\\\" has already published this paper in 2011. The introduction part of the paper mentioned: \\\"I am committed to advancing the progress of creative writing studies. As an academic discipline, creative writing studies explore the challenges of creative writing pedagogy. It not only supports but also welcomes intellectual analysis, which may lead to new theories.\\\" ［65］He also pointed out the focus and value of this discipline: \\\"It focuses on our understanding of the pedagogical practice, which may affect our teaching strategies and classroom vitality, as well as the more value we may offer to academics, our professionalism and our diverse student body.\\\"［66］
As a sub-discipline of creative writing, creative writing studies also needs new methodology, which has given birth to research on creative writing study methods, indicating that this discipline has been further deepened. The representative work is Research Methods in Creative Writing compiled by Jeri Kroll and Graeme Harper . In this essay, the researcher proposes the construction of the overall creative writing study model, the writing process study model, the teaching model, and the creative writing laboratory. It is no longer appropriate to study creative writing based on literary research experience alone, and creative writing research requires a conscious methodology.
Conclusion
The above is a review of the research on creative writing in English speaking countries. Foreign creative writing has developed into a sub-discipline——creative writing studies. Compared with foreign creative writing research, creative writing in China has just emerged in both practice and research. The future research of creative writing in China should adhere to the following directions:
First, clarify the nature of creative writing and creative writing discipline. The discipline of creative writing has basically been regarded as an independent art discipline besides natural sciences and social sciences in English-speaking countries. Yet China still does not give creative writing its rightful place as a discipline. As early as 150 years ago (in 1869), Charles W. Eliot, the president of Harvard University, offered the literary writing course regardless others people\\u0027s opposition(the former form of creative writing). Chinese scholars should understand the essence and connotation of creative writing from the history of creative writing in English-speaking countries.
Second, consolidate basic theoretical research. At present, there are no influential creative writing textbooks in China. Therefore, the basic rules and methods of writing, and the research on creative basic rules and methods are not solid enough. At the same time, the research on the basic teaching form of the workshop is not deep enough. There is still much to be done on how to give full play to its cooperative effect, how to encourage the conflict between individuals, and how to control the output of results.
Third, deepen the research on the classification and genres of creative writing. At present, creative writing research in China still focuses on the extensive fictional and non-fictional creative writing. There is very little research on poetry writing, not to mention the research on classified writing. With the development of the discipline of creative writing in China, in the future, universities will definitely develop relevant classified writing based on their own writer resources and regional characteristics, so it is imperative to make the research on classified writing.
Fourth, establish a conscious methodology of creative writing research. We should establish such a conscious methodology as soon as possible, step out of the thinking of literary research, put the construction of writing process research model and teaching research model into consideration, and consider the construction of creative writing laboratory,etc.
Fifth, promote the localization research on creative writing. The discipline of creative writing originated in the United States and evolved in Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, which is a veritable \\\"foreign thing\\\". The Sinicization of creative writing also faces the transformation of writing media, cultural traditions and institutional mechanisms etc., all of which need to be reviewed. However, it is an essential task to sort out the creative writing experience of English-speaking countries. From 1936 to 2016, English-speaking countries have a full 80 years of experience in creative writing. If we can humbly learn from its core concepts and experience, it may accelerate the research and practice of Sinicization and localization of creative writing.
（Editor in charge: Li Yiting）
A Review of Study on Creative Writing in English Speaking Countries
Ge Hongbing Lei Yong
Abstract: The discipline of Creative Writing was born in the United States since 1936 and then diffused to Canada ，UK ，Ireland ，Australia and so on. Currently ，the study on creative writing has become come one of the hot topics. Some scholars have begun to call for the creation of creative writing re- search subjects. This paper collates the status of creative writing from the aspect of the nature of creative writing and the discipline, the history, the basic theory and methodology of creative writing, the classified writing and so on. At the same time, this paper makes a review and comment on the study of creative writing in English speaking countries by comparing with the research of Chinese scholars. Finally, this paper comes up with the future research direction of Chinese creative writing.
Keywords: Creative Writing; Study on Creative Writing; History of Creative Writing; Basic Theory; Classified Writing
Notes:
◎Date of Reception：2016-09-10
*This paper is the phased result of \\\"Research on Creative Writing in English-speaking Countries\\\" (Item No. : 14YJA751025) by the Humanities and Social Sciences Planning Fund of the Ministry of Education.
［35］侯麗：《高校能否批量生產創意寫作高手》，《中國社會科學報》2015年3月4日。
［36］McVey, David. \\\"Why all writing is creative writing.\\\"Innovations in Education and Teaching International, vol.45, no.3 (2008), pp.289-294.
［37］Paul Dawson. Creative Writing and The New Humanities. Routledge Press, 2005,p.154.
［38］Paul Dawson. Creative Writing and The New Humanities. Routledge Press, 2005,p.156.
［39］Myers, David Gershom. The Elephants Teach: Creative Writing since1880. University of Chicago Press. 1427 East 60th Street, Chicago,IL 60637, 2006,p.35.
［40］Rob Pope. Creativity: Theory, History, Practice. Routledge Press. 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN,2005,p.52.
［41］Tate, Allen. \\\"What Is Creative Writing?.\\\" Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature, vol.5, no.3(1964),pp.181-184.
［42］McVey, David. \\\"Why all writing is creative writing.\\\" Innovations in Education and Teaching International, vol.45, no.3 (2008), pp.289-294.
［43］葛紅兵、許道軍：《中國創意寫作學學科建構論綱》，《探索與爭鳴》2011年第6期。
［44］陳曉輝：《中國化的創意寫作學科體係猜想》，《湘潭大學學報》（哲學社會科學版）2016年第1期。
［45］Jordan-Baker, Craig. \\\"The Philosophy of Creative Writing.\\\" New Writing, vol.12, no.2 (2015), pp.238-248.
［46］Jordan-Baker, Craig. \\\"The Philosophy of Creative Writing.\\\" New Writing, vol.12, no.2 (2015), pp.238-248.
［47］Jordan-Baker, Craig. \\\"The Philosophy of Creative Writing.\\\" New Writing, vol.12, no.2 (2015), pp.238-248.
⑥Jordan-Baker, Craig. \\\"The Philosophy of Creative Writing.\\\" New Writing,vol.12, no.2 (2015), pp.238-248.
⑦Jordan-Baker, Craig. \\\"The Philosophy of Creative Writing.\\\" New Writing,vol.12, no.2 (2015), pp.238-248.
［48］Morley, David. The Cambridge introduction to creative writing. Cambridge University Press, 2007,p.5.
［49］Morley, David. The Cambridge introduction to creative writing. Cambridge University Press, 2007,p.5.
［50］葛紅兵：《創意寫作學的學科定位》，《湘潭大學學報》（哲學社會科學版）2011年第5期。
［51］Myers, David Gershom. The Elephants Teach: Creative Writing since 1880. University of Chicago Press. 1427 East 60th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, 2006, p.36.
［52］Myers, David Gershom. The Elephants Teach: Creative Writing since 1880. University of Chicago Press. 1427 East 60th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, 2006,p.82.
［53］Mark McGurl：《\\\"理解愛荷華——\\\"創意寫作\\\"在美國的誕生和發展\\\"》，朱喆、鄭周明譯，《湘潭大學學報》（哲學與社會科學版） 2011年第5期。
［54］Anne Fogarty, Eilis Ni Dhuibhne, Eibhear Walshe. Imagination in the Classroom: Teaching and Learning Crative Writing in Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2013,p.11.
［55］［美］赫弗倫：《作家創意手冊》，雷勇、謝彩譯，中國人民大學出版社2015年版，第48頁。
［56］許道軍：《創意寫作：課程模式與訓練方法》，《湘潭大學學報》（哲學社會科學版）2011年第5期。
［57］Donnelly, Dianne, ed. Does the writing workshop still work? Multilingual Matters, Vol. 5, 2010,p.65.
［58］Donnelly, Dianne, ed. Does the writing workshop still work? Multilingual Matters, Vol. 5, 2010,p.65.
［59］許道軍：《創意寫作：課程模式與訓練方法》，《湘潭大學學報》（哲學社會科學版）2011年第5期。
［60］［美］傑克·哈特：《故事技巧：敘事性非虛構文學寫作指南》，葉青譯，中國人民大學出版社2012年版，第5頁。
［61］Baron, Dennis. A better pencil: Readers, writers, and the digital revolution. Oxford University Press, 2009,p.207.
［62］Meadows, Daniel. \\\"Digital storytelling: Research- based practice in new media.\\\" Visual Communication, vol.2, no.2 (2003), pp.189-193.
［63］Meadows, Daniel. \\\"Digital storytelling: Research- based practice in new media.\\\" Visual Communication, vol.2. no.2 (2003), pp.189-193.
［64］Blythe, Hal, and Charlie Sweet. \\\"The writing community: A new model for the creative writing classroom.\\\" Pedagogy, vol.8, no.2 (2008), pp.305-325.
［65］Donnelly, Dianne J. \\\"Establishing creative writing studies as an academic discipline.\\\" (2009), p.vi.
［66］Donnelly, Dianne J. \\\"Establishing creative writing studies as an academic discipline.\\\" (2009), p.vii.