65.自然法
段落大意：法律不全是人為製定的，還包括自然法。
Law is not completely a matter of human enactment （法令）. It also includes natural law. The best-known version of this view that God’s law is supreme has had considerable influence in the United States and other Western societies. The civil rights movement, for example, was at least partially inspired by the belief in natural law. Such a belief seems implicit（暗示的） in the view that law should serve to promote human dignity and equal rights for all.
66.部落時代的法律
段落大意：法律隨著社會發展而發展。人類曆史上最原始的社會是部落製的，當時也存在“法律”。
Law develops as society evolves. Historically, the simplest societies were tribal. The members of the tribe were bonded together initially by kinship （血緣） and worship of the same gods. Even in the absence of courts and legislature there was law—a blend （混合） of custom, morality, religion, and magic. The visible authority was the ruler, or chief, but the ultimate authorities were believed to be the gods whose will was revealed in the forces of nature and in the revelations of the tribal head or the priests. Wrongs against the tribe, such as sacrilege （褻瀆） or breach（破壞） of tribal custom, were met with group sanctions （處罰） including ridicule （嘲笑） and hostility. Once the wrong was done, there would be the wrath （憤怒） of the gods. The gods were appeased （撫慰） in ritualistic ceremonies ending perhaps in sacrifice or expulsion （驅逐） of the wrongdoer. Wrongs against individuals, such as murder, theft, adultery （通奸）, or failure to repay a debt, were avenged by the family of the victim, often in actions against the family of the wrongdoer. Revenge of this kind was based on tribal custom, a major component of early law.
67.羅馬法
段落大意：羅馬法在法律史上占有重要的地位，影響了世界上的大多數法律體係。
Tribal society gradually evolved into territorial confederations （聯盟）. Governmental structures emerged, and modern law began to take shape. The most significant historical example is Roman law, which influences most of the legal systems of the world. In the 8th century BC, the law of Rome was still largely a blend of custom and interpretation by priests（祭司） of the will of the gods. Later, the threat of revolution by lower classes led to one of the most significant developments in the history of law: the Twelve Tables of Rome（《十二表法》）, which were engraved （雕刻） on bronze tablets （石板） in the 5th century BC. They were largely a declaration of existing custom concerning such matters as property, payment of debts, and appropriate compensation or other remedies for damage to persons. The Twelve Tables serve as a historical basis for the widespread modern belief that fairness in law demands that it should be in written form. These tables and their Roman successors, including the Justinian Code （《查士丁尼法典》）, constitute civil-law codes that provide the main source of law in much of modern Europe, South America, and elsewhere.
68.公法
段落大意：公法關注的是政府內部關係，以及政府和個人間的關係。
Public law concerns the relationships within government and those between governments and individuals. Because the Roman codes were almost entirely limited to the private area, public law is usually not codified （成文）. In civil-law countries, separate administrative courts adjudicate （判決） claims and disputes between the various branches of government and citizens, and many lawyers specialize in public law.
69.私法
段落大意：私法關注的是人與人之間的關係、公民的合法權利，以及公民義務。
Private law involves the various relationships that people have with one another and the rules that determine their legal rights and duties as citizens. The area is concerned with rules and principles pertaining to （關於…的） private ownership and use of property, contracts between individuals, family relationships, and redress （賠償） by way of compensation for harm inflicted on one person by another. Historically, government involvement was usually minimal. Private law has also provided general guidelines and security in private arrangements and interactions in ways that are complementary to morality and custom but not necessarily enforceable in a court of law, such as non-contractual （非合同的） promises and agreements within an association of private individuals.
70.公法和私法的重要性
段落大意：在現代社會，私法的重要性略有下降，公法占據優勢地位。
The relative significance of purely private law has decreased in modern times. Public law dominates in societies, and democratic societies increasingly have a mix of public and private law. The private sphere （部分） includes individuals and a vast array of groups, associations, organizations, and special legal entities such as corporations. They compete with one another and with government for control of resources, wealth, power, and the communication of ideas and values. Special fields of law, such as labor law, facilitate and control this competition. Much of such law is in the commercial and corporate areas. The formerly purely private law of property and contracts, for example, is now overlaid（覆蓋） with legislation, regulations, and judicial decisions reflecting the competition. The public law of taxation has significant impact on the whole private sphere. Courts have increasingly regarded resolution of seemingly private disputes as vehicles for changing social conditions and values—especially in the US. Thus, manufacturers have experienced an expansion of liability for physical injuries caused by defects in their products. The mechanism of insurance allows manufacturers to transfer such costs to the general consuming public.
71.國際法
段落大意：協調國與國之間關係的法律就是國際法，其幾乎完全基於習俗。
The legal process that concerns relations among nations is called international law. Belief and experience in some form of international law dates from at least the days of the Roman Empire. Such law differs greatly from national legal systems. Even in its most modern developments, international law is almost wholly based on custom. The precedents （先例） on which it rests are the acts of independent governments in their relations with one another, including treaties and conventions. Behind many of its rules is one moral sanction:the public opinion of the civilized world. The machinery （機製） to enforce these laws includes arbitration （仲裁）, conciliation （調解）, and the submission of the dispute to a regional or international court.
72.國際關係關注的焦點
段落大意：國際關係主要關注領土和邊界、公海使用、限製戰爭、外交、領空使用等問題。
A discernible （可識別的） body of rules and principles is observed or at least acknowledged in international relations. These rules concern such matters as territorial titles （領土所有權） and boundaries, use of the high seas（公海）, limits on war, telecommunication, diplomatic and consular （領事的） exchange, and use of air space. The major sources of international law on these matters are multilateral （多邊的） treaties, international custom, and general principles recognized by civilized nations.
73.女性權利
段落大意：女性權利指女性享有和男性同等的社會、經濟和政治權利。
Women’s rights are rights that establish the same social, economic, and political status for women as for men. Women’s rights guarantee that women will not face discrimination on the basis of their sex. Until the second half of the 20th century, women in most societies were denied some of the legal and political rights accorded to men. Although nowadays women in much of the world have gained significant legal rights, many people believe that women still do not have complete political, economic, and social equality with men.
74.關於警察用槍的爭議
段落大意：警察使用武力，尤其是槍械的使用，引起了極大爭議。一些人認為警察隻有在生命安全受到直接威脅時才能使用槍械，另一些人則認為警察應該使用任何必要的武力去逮捕重罪犯。
No issue provokes more intense controversy within minority communities than police policy concerning the use of force, especially deadly force. Some police officials and most minority community leaders believe that a police officer should use a firearm only in defense of a life （either that of the officer or of some other person） in immediate jeopardy （危險）. Others think that existing state laws, many of which permit an officer to use any force necessary to arrest a suspected felon （重罪犯）, should not be limited by local policies.
75.巡邏部門的社會職責
段落大意：巡邏是基本警務服務。除步行巡邏和機動車巡邏外，警察還會提供一係列服務來滿足市民需求。
The patrol division （巡邏部門）, consisting of uniformed patrol officers and supervisors, provides basic police services. In addition to foot and automobile patrol, officers engage in a variety of activities in response to citizens’ needs. The greater part of patrol today is carried out by officers in police cars assigned to specific beats（巡邏區域）, or designated areas of the community. In small agencies, one-officer patrol cars are prevalent, while in larger cities, combinations of one- and two-officer cars are common. Use of women officers for patrol duty is increasing, which started from 1970. Recent research has cast doubts on the effectiveness of preventive patrol to curb （抑製） most kinds of crime. Crime prevention, however, also means activities related to improving the security of homes and businesses, and to educating citizens to protect themselves. Most large police departments maintain a crime prevention unit to provide these services.
76.城市的出現
段落大意：城市是人類最複雜的創造物之一，它的出現給社會帶來了許多變化。
After about 3,000.BC, one of the most complex creations of humankind appeared: the city. From this point forward, technology cannot be described only in terms of simple tools, agricultural advancements, and technical processes such as metallurgy （冶金術）, because the city itself is a technological system. This is evident even in the first written symbols used to represent a city, which is a circle containing networks of lines that indicate transportation and communication systems. The emergence of the city made possible a surplus （過剩） of food and an abundance of material wealth, which in turn made possible the institution of holy kingship（王權） and the construction of temples, tombs, and citadels（城堡）. The accumulation of precious metals, the acquisition of the power to build defensive walls, and the control of armies and priests ensured the ascendancy （權勢） of the king, who may be called the first urban technologist.
77.城市化促使寫作和社會等級製度的出現
段落大意：城市化刺激了寫作需求並帶來了勞動力分化，形成了社會等級製度。
Urbanization stimulated a greater need for writing. The Egyptians improved on the clumsy clay tablet （粗陋的黏土平板） by manufacturing, from papyrus （紙莎草） plants, a paperlike material on which they wrote in hieroglyphs （象形文字）. In addition, the city brought about a new division of labor which is called the caste system （等級製度）. This structure provided security, status, and leisure for an intellectual class of scribes （抄寫員）, doctors, teachers, engineers, magicians, and diviners （預言者）. The greatest resources, however, were allotted to the military.
78.農村人口遷往城市的一些原因
段落大意：眾多因素促使農村勞動力遷往城市。
One of the most obvious changes industrialization brought to people’s lives was that large numbers of people moved into the urban areas where factories were located. Beginning in the early 18th century, people in rural areas were competing for fewer jobs. The rural population had risen sharply as new sources of food became available, and death rates declined due to fewer plagues （瘟疫） and wars. At the same time, many small farms disappeared. This was partly because new enclosure laws （圈地法） required farmers to put fences or hedges （籬笆） around their fields to prevent common grazing （放牧） on the land. Some small farmers who could not afford to enclose their fields had to sell their farms to larger landholders and search for work elsewhere.
79.工業革命與城市化
段落大意：工業革命改變了城市生活，提高了人們對改善生活水平的期望。新增的就業機會、交通和住房建設等的技術革新，使人們向城市遷移，交通的發展也使城市邊界不斷擴大。
The Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries transformed urban life and gave people higher expectations for improving their standard of living. The increased number of jobs, along with technological innovations in transportation and housing construction, encouraged migration to cities. Development of railroads, streetcars （有軌電車）, and trolleys （電車） in the 19th century enabled city boundaries to expand. People no longer had to live within walking distance of their jobs. With more choices about where to live, people tended to seek out neighbors of similar social status, if they could afford to do so. The wealthy no longer had to live in the center of the city, so they formed exclusive enclaves （獨立的區域） far from warehouses （倉庫） , factories, and docks （碼頭）. Heavier industry clustered （聚集） along the rivers and rail lines that brought in raw materials and shipped out manufactured products. Railroads also allowed goods to be brought into downtown commercial districts. By the second half of the 19th century, specialized spaces, such as retail districts, office blocks, manufacturing districts, and residential areas, had characterized urban life.
80.城鎮的迅速發展
段落大意：工業城鎮迅速發展，這些城鎮中許多都靠近為工廠提供能源的煤田。
New manufacturing towns and cities grew dramatically, many of which were close to the coalfields that supplied fuel to the factories. Factories had to be close to power sources because power could not be distributed very far. The names of British industrialized cities soon symbolized industrialization to the wider world: Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Sheffield, and especially Manchester. In the early 1770s Manchester had only 25,000.inhabitants. By 1850, after it had become the center of cotton manufacturing, its population had grown to more than 350,000.
81.美國的城市化發展
段落大意：美國的城市化有一個過程，呈現由北至南逐步加深的趨勢。
The early United States was predominately （主要地） rural. According to the 1790.census （人口普查）, 95.percent of the population lived in the countryside. The 5.percent of Americans living in urban areas （places with more than 2,500.persons） lived mostly in small villages. Only Philadelphia, New York, and Boston had more than 15,000.inhabitants. The South was almost completely rural. After 1830.the urban areas of the country grew more rapidly than the rural areas. By 1890.industrialization had achieved substantial growth in cities, and 35.percent of Americans lived in urban areas, mostly in the North. The South remained rural, except for New Orleans and a few smaller cities. The number of Americans living in cities did not surpass （超過） the number in rural areas until 1920. By the 1990s three out of four Americans lived in an urban setting, and since World War II the South has become increasingly urbanized, particularly in Texas, Arizona, and the states along the eastern seaboard.
82.19世紀中葉的城市狀況
段落大意：19世紀中葉，城市中心區是最時興的居住地點，人口密集，道路狹窄。
Until the middle of the 19th century, the center of the city was the most fashionable place to live. Merchants, lawyers, and manufacturers built substantial （許多的）townhouses on the main thoroughfares （大道） within walking distance of the docks, warehouses, offices, courts, and shops where they worked. Poorer people lived in back alleys and courtyards of the central city. The middle classes lived a little farther from the center, and other poor people lived in the suburbs, farther from the economic and governmental centers and away from urban amenities （便利設施） such as town watches, water pumps （水泵）, and garbage collection. Cities were densely populated, as people had to live within walking distance of work. Streets were narrow, just wide enough to accommodate pedestrians and wagons （四輪馬車）.
83.麵向富人與白領階層的住宅的發展
段落大意：富人在城市邊緣或鄉村辟出獨立的社區。大批構造、外形等相似的住宅出現，滿足了新興白領階層的需求。
The wealthy created separate neighborhoods for themselves by building mansions（公寓） on large plots（一塊土地） of land at the edges of the cities or in the countryside. Similar-looking single-family or multiple-family dwellings, built by speculators（投機商人）, sprouted （迅速出現） on the edges of cities. These often catered to （滿足） a new middle class of white-collar employees in business and industry. The houses faced broader streets and increasingly had plots of grass in front and sometimes in the rear （後部）. New apartments were spacious and often had balconies, porches （門廊）, or other amenities.
84.窮人向城市遷移
段落大意：中產階級離開擁擠且烏煙瘴氣的城市，窮人開始遷往城市，為城市住宅帶來了變化。
As the middle classes left the bustle and smoke of cities, poorer people, usually newcomers from the countryside and immigrants, moved into the old housing stock. Landlords took advantage of the demand for housing by subdividing （再細分） city houses into apartments and by building low-rent apartments that were often poorly maintained and unsanitary （不衛生的）. Immigrants lived in the cheap houses and found work in or near the center of cities or around factories.
85.19世紀末城市環境的惡化
段落大意：城市發展的步伐超過了當地政府提供淨水、處理垃圾、排汙等的能力，導致城市環境開始惡化。
The growth of cities outpaced （超越） the ability of local governments to extend clean water, garbage collection, and sewage systems into poorer areas, so conditions in cities deteriorated （惡化）. Cities in the late 19th century were large, crowded, and impersonal places devoted to making money. Not surprisingly, corruption was rampant （猖獗的） in city governments and services, in the construction industry, and among landlords and employers. High rents, low wages, and poor services produced misery in the midst of unprecedented （空前的） economic growth.
86.對城市生活的改善
段落大意：人們通過一係列努力來弱化城市生活的劣勢，改善城市居住條件，但城市中的貧困問題仍然存在。
Upward mobility, home ownership, educational opportunities, and cheap goods softened many of the disadvantages of 19th-century urban life. Beautification programs, electrification, and construction of libraries, parks, playgrounds, and swimming pools, gradually improved the quality of urban life in the 20th century, although poor areas received fewer benefits. Poverty, particularly among new arrivals, and low wages remained problems in the cities throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. American reform movements, such as the settlement house movement, have typically focused on treating the negative effects of poverty such as housing, health, and corruption, instead of the causes of poverty, such as unemployment, underemployment （未充分就業）, poor skills, and low wages. Labor unions helped raise wages and benefits for many workers, particularly the most skilled, from 1900.to 1950, but since then replacement of manufacturing work by service work has reduced both wage levels and the influence of labor unions.
87.美國郊區化的興起與發展
段落大意：18世紀，富人開始在鄉村建房避暑，郊區化由此興起。隨著道路的改善，越來越多的人開始住在城外，郊區化得以進一步發展。
Suburbs began to appear in the 18th century when wealthy people built houses in the country to escape the crowded, sweltering （悶熱的） city during the summer. As roads improved in the early part of the 19th century, more people built summer houses. A few began living outside the city full time and commuting by carriage to town. Commuting into the city to work became easier and cheaper in the late 19th century, when commuter railroad lines were built, radiating （呈輻射狀散發） out from the central city. New suburbs developed, which were almost entirely residential and depended on the economic resources of the central city. Because railroad fares （票價） were relatively high, most of these suburbs remained the preserve of the wealthiest Americans until World War II, although a few working-class suburbs sprang up around large manufacturing cities or ports.
88.郊區居民的相似點
段落大意：郊區居民有一些相似點：剛開始組建家庭的新婚夫婦；妻子一般是家庭主婦，丈夫每日通勤；注重家庭隱私等。
Suburbanites（郊區居民） were similar in many ways. Married couples were generally just starting their families. Women were housewives, and husbands commuted to jobs in the city. Families valued privacy and were separated from other relatives, who either remained in the city or lived elsewhere. It was both comfortable and isolating. The family was often on its own, knowing few neighbors, watching television in the evening, driving private cars to shopping centers. Some people living in these new suburbs depended on rail lines to get to work, although more took advantage of the automobile as a form of transport. The federal government contributed to suburbanization by subsidizing mortgages for veterans and building highways that made travel between cities and suburbs easier.
89.郊區的吸引力
段落大意：越來越多的中產階級被郊區所吸引而離開了城市。郊區的吸引力包括更幹淨、更新，居民社會成分單一，資金更充足的學校，有安全感，以及政治上的吸引力等。
As the suburbs grew, more and more of the middle classes abandoned the cities. The suburbs were attractive for many reasons. They were cleaner, newer, socially homogeneous （同質的）, had better-funded schools, and provided a sense of security. They provided what city dwellers had long been seeking—bigger yards and more privacy. The perceived problems of the city such as crowding, high taxes, crime, and poverty, could be left behind. Since the suburbs were politically independent of the core city, the layers （階層） of bureaucracy （官僚） and corruption could be replaced by smaller, friendlier, and presumably more honest government.
90.商業區向郊區遷移
段落大意：隨著人口向郊區遷移，商業區也遷往郊區，給郊區帶來了變化，也引發一些新問題。
Once the population shifted to the suburbs, employers eventually followed, though more slowly than residents. Increased traffic congestion（堵塞） in the city centers, the benefits of lower corporate taxes, and less crime in the suburbs, eventually pushed corporations out to the suburbs as well. It brought jobs closer to the suburban areas where many workers lived. Warehouses, light industry, and other businesses were increasingly located in the suburbs. However, these new locations were poorly served by public transportation, and workers had to commute by car. This trend appeared as early as the 1950s and 1960s in the rapidly growing metropolitan areas like Los Angeles and Dallas and later in the older large cities of the Northeast and Midwest.
91.郊區化未涉足的方麵
段落大意：郊區化並未涉及美國社會生活的方方麵麵，政府部門、法院、大學、醫院、劇院和藝術群體等大都留在城市。
Suburbanization has not affected all aspects of American life. Some functions have largely remained in the central cities, including government bureaus, courts, universities, research hospitals, theaters, and arts groups. Trendy shopping, fine restaurants, and nightlife, which expanded in the booming economy at the end of the 20th century, have become popular in many cities, revitalizing （複興） a few urban neighborhoods.
92.郊區及城市發展的新趨勢
段落大意：當郊區居民追求的和平與安全越來越難以獲得，人們的住宅發生了一些變化，很多人也由大城市和郊區遷往小鎮和鄉村地區，此外信息技術的發展也可能促進人口的分散。
The peace and security that suburbanites originally sought became more elusive（難以捕捉的） near the end of the 20th century, and the trend toward gated and walled housing was the most visible sign of anxiety about external threats. The next major trend may be a movement out of large cities and suburbs and into small towns and the countryside as Americans try to avoid commuting and seek more leisure time and a stronger sense of community. New information technologies such as e-mail and computer networking will probably contribute to the dispersal （分散） of the population, although a sharp and sustained rise in gasoline （汽油） prices could reverse current trends by making the private automobile and long-distance commuting too expensive.
93.發展中國家的文盲問題
段落大意：對很多發展中國家來說，文盲是一大基本問題。
Illiteracy poses a fundamental challenge for developing nations. Extensive literacy campaigns by international agencies such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization （UNESCO） and other public and private organizations have raised literacy rates worldwide. According to UNESCO, literacy rates increased from about 60.percent of the world’s population in 1970.to 77.4.percent in 1995. However, due to the rapid increase of the world’s overall population, the number of illiterate people has also grown. What’s worse is that millions of adults worldwide do not have basic reading and writing skills. The problem is particularly acute （尖銳的） in sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia, and the Middle East, areas where literacy rates averaged below 60.percent in 1995. UNESCO has shown that illiteracy accompanies poverty, low life expectancy, political oppression, and underdevelopment. In areas where such conditions occur, literacy rates are even lower among women and minority groups.
94.脫盲運動
段落大意：教育機構大力開展脫盲運動幫助孩子和成年人脫盲，對孩子實行義務教育，同時也對成人進行教育，以掃除文盲現象。
Political leaders worldwide have accepted principles to help all people achieve literacy. As a result, educational institutions have dramatically increased literacy campaigns for both adults and children. These campaigns receive widespread public support since literacy is viewed as a fundamental human right and a prerequisite （先決條件） for modern development and democracy. Literacy campaigns have mandated （要求）compulsory education for children as the basic method to combat illiteracy in developing nations, but educational programs for adults have also been effective.