20、蘇格拉底的倫理體係
Socrates was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of man. Knowledge having a bearing on human life was placed highest, all other knowledge being secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within their capabilities to their pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact （and its context） relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right. Evil, or bad actions, are the result of ignorance. If a criminal were truly aware of the mental and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would not commit them. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While he equated knowledge with virtue, he similarly equated virtue with happiness. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good and therefore be happy.
21、國際商業的七大倫理問題
Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include:
1.The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behavior.
2.Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries.
3.Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives.
4.Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions; e.g. bioprospecting and biopiracy in the pharmaceutical industry; the fair trade movement; transfer pricing.
Issues such as globalization and cultural imperialism.
5.Varying global standards; e.g. the use of child labor.
6.The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production （e.g. clothes） and services （e.g. call centers） to low-wage countries.
7.The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states.
22、環境倫理學
Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics, ecology and geography. Environmental ethics is properly but a sub-section of environmental philosophy, which includes environmental aesthetics, environmental theology, and all the other branches of philosophical investigation （e.g., epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of science, etc.）.
There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. For example:
1.Should we continue to clear cut forests for the sake of human consumption?
2.Should we continue to make gasoline powered vehicles, depleting fossil fuel resources while the technology exists to create zero-emission vehicles?
3.What environmental obligations do we need to keep for future generations?
4.Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the extinction of a species for the （perceived or real） convenience of humanity?
23、組織倫理的基本觀點
The most fundamental belief about organizational ethics is: Ethics is not about answers. Instead, ethics is about asking questions. It’s about asking lots of questions and, maybe, if you’re lucky, even asking the right questions every now and then. Ethical organizations don’t shy away from asking potentially embarrassing questions, ones that might disturb the status quo.
The need and value of doing so was brought home clearly in the Enron/Arthur Andersen scandals. Those were two organizations where, apparently, no one dared ask the tough questions that might actually have saved the companies. Now, thanks to those related scandals, the good news is that corporations are routinely asking tough questions about financial reporting. Today, we’re all terribly conscious of the risks to the organization if we fail to question the numbers. Almost all of you are in the firing line in that regard, so there’s very little that I can tell you about the importance of assessing financial risk.
24、人力資源管理倫理及其五大倫理問題
The ethics of human resource management （HRM） covers those ethical issues arising around the employer-employee relationship, such as the rights and duties owed between employer and employee.
1.Discrimination issues include discrimination on the bases of age （ageism）, gender, race, religion, disability, weight and attractiveness.
2.Issues surrounding the representation of employees and the democratization of the workplace:union busting, strike breaking.
3.Issues affecting the privacy of the employee: workplace surveillance, drug testing.
4.Issues affecting the privacy of the employer:whistle-blowing.
5.Issues relating to the fairness of the employment contract and the balance of power between employer and employee:slavery, indentured servitude, employment law, occupational safety and health.
25、生產倫理及其四大倫理問題
This area of business ethics deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not cause harm. Some of the more acute dilemmas in this area arise out of the fact that there is usually a degree of danger in any product or production process and it is difficult to define a degree of permissibility, or the degree of permissibility may depend on the changing state of preventative technologies or changing social perceptions of acceptable risk.
1.Defective, addictive and inherently dangerous products and services （e.g. tobacco, alcohol, weapons, motor vehicles, chemical manufacturing, bungee jumping）.
2.Ethical relations between the company and the environment: pollution, environmental ethics, carbon emissions trading.
3.Ethical problems arising out of new technologies: genetically modified food, mobile phone radiation and health.
4.Product testing ethics: animal rights and animal testing, use of economically disadvantaged groups （such as students） as test objects.
26、克隆技術涉及的倫理問題
Although the practice of cloning organisms has been widespread for several thousands of years in the form of horticultural cloning, the recent technological advancements that have allowed for cloning of animals （and potentially humans） have been highly controversial. Some believe it is unethical to use a human clone to save the life of another. Others have countered that people who exist today and have interpersonal relationships and personal histories should take precedence over never-conscious life at any stage of developmental maturity. The Catholic Church and various traditionalist religious groups oppose all forms of cloning, on the grounds that life begins at conception. Conversely, Judaism does not equate life with conception and, though some question the wisdom of cloning, Orthodox rabbis generally find no firm reason in Jewish law and ethics to object to cloning. From the standpoint of classical liberalism, concerns also exist regarding the protection of the identity of the individual and the right to protect one’s genetic identity.
27、市場營銷倫理及其六大倫理問題
Marketing which goes beyond the mere provision of information about （and access to） a product may seek to manipulate our values and behavior. To some extent society regards this as acceptable, but where is the ethical line to be drawn? Marketing ethics overlaps strongly with media ethics, because marketing makes heavy use of media. However, media ethics is a much larger topic and extends outside business ethics.
1.Pricing: price fixing, price discrimination, price skimming.
2.Anti-competitive practices: these include but go beyond pricing tactics to cover issues such as manipulation of loyalty and supply chains.
3.Specific marketing strategies: green wash, bait and switch, shill, viral marketing, spam （electronic）, pyramid scheme, planned obsolescence.
4.Content of advertisements: attack ads, subliminal messages, sex in advertising, products regarded as immoral or harmful.
5.Children and marketing: marketing in schools.
6.Black markets, grey markets.
28、享樂主義倫理
Hedonism posits that the principal ethic is maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating self-gratification regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.
Cyrenaic hedonism supported immediate gratification. “Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die.” Even fleeting desires should be indulged, for fear the opportunity should be forever lost. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit for immediate pleasure. Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good.
29、一般商業倫理及其七大倫理問題
This part of business ethics overlaps with the philosophy of business, one of the aims of which is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company’s main purpose is to maximize the returns to its shareholders, then it could be seen as unethical for a company to consider the interests and rights of anyone else.
1.Corporate social responsibility or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing between companies and society is debated.
2.Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept vs. shareholder concept.
3.Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g. hostile take-overs, industrial espionage.
4.Leadership issues: corporate governance.
5.Political contributions made by corporations.
6.Law reform, such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter.
7.The misuse of corporate ethics policies as marketing instruments.
30、知識產權倫理及其八大倫理問題
Knowledge and skills are valuable but not easily “ownable” objects. Nor is it obvious who has the greater rights to an idea: the company who trained the employee or the employee themselves? The country in which the plant grew, or the company which discovered and developed the plant’s medicinal potential? As a result, attempts to assert ownership and ethical disputes over ownership arise.
1.Patent infringement, copyright infringement, trademark infringement.
2.Misuse of the intellectual property systems to stifle competition: patent misuse, copyright misuse, patent troll, submarine patent.
3.Even the notion of intellectual property itself has been criticized on ethical grounds:see intellectual property.
4.Employee raiding: the practice of attracting key employees away from a competitor to take unfair advantage of the knowledge or skills they may possess.
5.The practice of employing all the most talented people in a specific field, regardless of need, in order to prevent any competitors employing them.
6.Bioprospecting （ethical） and biopiracy （unethical）.
7.Business intelligence and industrial espionage.
8.Cases: private versus public interests in the Human Genome Project.