The term “World Bank” generally refers to the IBRD and IDA, whereas the World Bank Group is used to refer to the institutions collectively.
35、世界銀行組織的社會和環境關注
Throughout the period from 1972to 1989,the Bank did not conduct its own environmental assessments and did not require assessments for every project that was proposed. Assessments were required only for a varying, small percentage of projects, with the environmental staff, in the early 1970s, sending check-off forms to the borrowers and, in the latter part of the period, sending more detailed documentation and suggestions for analysis.
During this same period, the Bank’s failure to adequately consider social environmental factors was most evident in the 1976Indonesian Transmigration program （Transmigration V）. This project was funded after the establishment of the Bank’s OESA （environmental） office in 1971.The objectives were: relief of the economic and social problems of the inner islands, reduction of unemployment on Java, relocation of manpower to the outer islands, the “strengthening of national unity through ethnic integration, and improvement of the living standard of the poor.
Putting aside the political aspects of such a project, it otherwise failed as the new settlements went out of control; local populations fought with the migrators and the tropical forest was devastated （destroying the lives of indigenous peoples）. Also, some settlements were established in inhospitable sites, and failures were common; these concerns were noted by the Bank’s environmental unit whose recommendations （to Bank management） and analyses were ignored.
More recently the World Bank learned from the mistakes of projects such as Transmigration V and greatly improved its social and environmental controls, especially during the 1990s. It has established a set of “Safeguard Policies” that set out wide ranging basic criteria that projects must meet to be acceptable. The policies are demanding because of the combined pressures from Northern NGOs and shareholders, the Bank’s project managers’ labor under “safeguard” rules covering ten sensitive issues. No other development lender is hamstrung in this way.
36、世界銀行組織的活動
The World Bank’s activities are focused on developing countries, in fields such as human development （e.g. education, health）, agriculture and rural development （e.g. irrigation, rural services）, environmental protection （e.g. pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations）, infrastructure （e.g. roads, urban regeneration, electricity）, and governance （e.g. anti-corruption, legal institutions development）. The IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries. Loans or grants for specific projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the economy. For example, a loan to improve coastal environmental management may be linked to development of new environmental institutions at national and local levels and the implementation of new regulations to limit pollution.
The activities of the IFC and MIGA include investment in the private sector and providing insurance respectively. The World Bank Institute is the capacity development branch of the World Bank, providing learning and other capacity-building programs to member countries.
37、所有製的四大基本類型
Although forms of business ownership vary by country and local government, there are several common forms of business ownership:
1.Sole proprietorship: A sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person. The owner may operate on his or her own or may employ others. The owner of the business has total and unlimited personal liability of the debts incurred by the business.
2.Partnership: A partnership is a form of business in which two or more people operate for the common goal of making profit. Each partner has total and unlimited personal liability of the debts incurred by the partnership. There are three typical classifications of partnerships:general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships.
3.Corporation: A business corporation is a for-profit, limited liability entity that has a separate legal personality from its members. A corporation is owned by multiple shareholders and is overseen by board of directors, which hires the business’s managerial staff.
4.Cooperative: Often referred to as a “Co-Op business” or “Co-Op”, a cooperative is a for-profit, limited liability entity that differs from a corporation in that it has members, as opposed to shareholders, who share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives. Cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy.
38、合夥人和獨資
Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a general partnership. The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.
A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether he or she owns it directly or through a formally organized entity.
39、威廉·洛伊的現代公司概念
William Roy’s conception of the contemporary corporation focuses on the merger wave of the 1990sduring which many large firms turned to public capital markets to facilitate mergers. The change that occurred in corporations was when they went from a public sphere to a private sphere. Two sectors, manufacturing and financial, came together at this time. In this book Roy criticizes the efficiency theory and relies heavily on the power theory. He felt that with the efficiency theory, anything that was done was done to maximize profits at that given time in history. The power theory looks back on history and relies heavily upon it. The main transformation that has occurred in corporate America has been the transformation of the ownership.
William Roy presents a theoretical approach that argues that the concept of power provides a more sound and more accurate foundation for understanding such economic processes as the rise of the large corporation. He explained that only when managers of firms made decisions that were comparatively advantageous, did they survive. He thinks that efficiency theorists are functionalists. Power has influenced those who survived the competitive process, and determined the rules of the competitive process. This helps to explain why firms that survive the competitive process are not necessarily the most efficient. American businessmen have always been aware that they share common interests at least as much as they compete over conflicting interests.
40、現代公司的特征
Now corporations are owned by many people （socialized capital）, instead of an individual. Corporations were developed to undertake jobs that were not rational or not appropriate from the perspective of the individual businessman. This is where the transformation of public to private took place. The corporation that exists today has been contingent and developed from pre-existing forms. It evolved from the public corporation. The emergence of the railroad, the power of anti-monopoly, anti-state method of Jacksonian, anti-corporation privatized and democratized the corporation. Although the corporate retained many of its privileges, it also made these privileges available to the general public through incorporation laws. Thus, the corporation lost its hold on its public accountability. The boundaries that were developed between the public and private could have been drawn quite differently. For instance, the manufacturing field could have maintained its power in firms that were not corporations. In addition, the corporate setting could have retained its public accountability. The state could have maintained more control over railroads and banks the way it controls highways today. Those who received the right of incorporation should have had to fulfill a public responsibility. States have performed private tasks in producing consumer goods, trading commodities, speculating in land, and investing in enterprise.
41、外包的概念
Outsourcing involves the transfer of the management and/or day-to-day execution of an entire business function to an external service provider. The client organization and the supplier enter into a contractual agreement that defines the transferred services. Under the agreement the supplier acquires the means of production in the form of a transfer of people, assets and other resources from the client. The client agrees to procure the services from the supplier for the term of the contract. Business segments typically outsourced include information technology, human resources, facilities and real estate management, and accounting. Many companies also outsource customer support and call center functions like telemarketing, customer services, market research, manufacturing and engineering.
With increasing globalization of outsourcing companies, the distinction between outsourcing and offshoring will become less clear over time. This is evident in the increasing presence of Indian outsourcing companies in the US and the UK. The globalization of outsourcing operating models has resulted in new terms such as nearshoring and rightshoring that reflect the changing mix of locations. This is seen in the opening of offices and operations centers by Indian companies in the US and the UK.
Multisourcing refers to large （predominantly IT） outsourcing agreements. Multisourcing is a framework to enable different parts of the client business to be sourced from different suppliers. This requires a governance model that communicates strategy, clearly defines responsibility and has end-to-end integration.
42、外包的十三大原因
Organizations that outsource are seeking to realize benefits or address the following issues:
1.Cost savings: The lowering of the overall cost of the service to the business. This will involve reducing the scope, defining quality levels, re-pricing, re-negotiation, cost re-structuring. Access to lower cost economies through offshoring called “labor arbitrage” generated by the wage gap between industrialized and developing nations.
2.Cost restructuring: Operating leverage is a measure that compares fixed costs to variable costs outsourcing changes the balance of this ratio by offering a move from variable to fixed cost and also by making variable costs more predictable.
3.Improve quality: Achieve a step change in quality through contracting out the service with a new Service Level Agreement.
4.Knowledge: Access to intellectual property and wider experience and knowledge.
5.Contract: Services will be provided to a legally binding contract with financial penalties and legal redress. This is not the case with internal services.
6.Operational expertise: Access to operational best practice that would be too difficult or time consuming to develop in-house.
7.Staffing issues: Access to a larger talent pool and a sustainable source of skills.
8.Capacity management: An improved method of capacity management of services and technology where the risk in providing the excess capacity is borne by the supplier.
9.Catalyst for change: An organization can use an outsourcing agreement as a catalyst for major step change that can not be achieved alone. The outsourcer becomes a Change Agent in the process.
10.Reduce time to market: The acceleration of the development or production of a product through the additional capability brought by the supplier.
11.Commodification: The trend of standardizing business processes, IT Services and application services enable businesses to intelligently buy at the right price. Allows a wide range of businesses access to services previously only available to large corporations.
12.Risk management: An approach to risk management for some types of risks is to partner with an outsourcer who is better able to provide the mitigation.
13.Time zone: A sequential task can be done during normal day shift in different time zones—to make it seamlessly available 24x7.Same/similar can be done on a longer term between earth’s hemispheres of summer/winter.
43、管理外包及其十五大類型
Outsourcing governance and relationship management, outsourcing management, outsourcing relationship alignment are terms used to describe avoidance or mitigation of issues and problems that risk the desired business value of outsourcing. Establishment of a comprehensive governance program enables management of the financial, structural, and contractual obligations of the parties as well as aiding the two or more firms to align their interests and operate as seemlessly as desired. For most firms this means investing a portion of the total contract value in governance people, structures, and processes as well as in acquiring the skills needed to design and build them.
Depending on the complexity of the outsourcing deal, comprehensive governance addresses:
1.Quality measurement and management
2.Issue management
3.Preparation and management of change
4.Policies and practices management
5.Contract and financial management
6.Communication and stakeholder alignment
7.Functional organization
8.Authority of governance organization
9.Roles and responsibilities
10.Redesign of the retained organization （for the outsourced business process）
11.Principles of operation
12.Assessment and management of inter-company relationship alignment
13.Multi-tower, multi-vendor, multi-geography structure and strategy
14.Off-shoring strategy and management
15.Technology and tools for ongoing executive visibility
Knowledge of each of the above areas does not typically reside within the skill set of the outsourcing client. Also, outsourcing provider firms implement the above functions only from the requirements of the provider, not to satisfy the fiduciary responsibilities of the client. In order to acquire best of breed capabilities and information on industry trends, clients will engage third party outsourcing advisory firms. One to two consultants engaged for 2-4 months can design and build a major portion of the required governance infrastructure for the client. This also helps avoid under or over spending on governance.
44、外包與生產力
Offshore outsourcing for the purpose of saving cost can often have a negative influence on the real productivity of a company. Rather than investing in technology to improve productivity, companies gain non-real productivity by hiring less people locally and outsourcing work to less productive facilities offshore that appear to be more productive simply because the workers are paid less. Sometimes, this can lead to strange contradictions where workers in a third world country using hand tools can appear to be more productive than a U.S. worker using advanced computer controlled machine tools, simply because their salary appears to be less in terms of U.S. dollars.
In contrast, increases in real productivity are the result of more productive tools or methods of operating that make it possible for a worker to do more work. Non-real productivity gains are the result of shifting work to lower paid workers, often without regards to real productivity. The net result of choosing non-real over real productivity gain is that the company falls behind and obsoletes itself overtime rather than making real investments in productivity.
45、籌資
When businesses need to raise money （called “capital”）, more laws come into play. A highly complex set of laws and regulations govern the offer and sale of investment securities （the means of raising money） in most Western countries. These regulations can require disclosure of a lot of specific financial and other information about the business and give buyers certain remedies. Because “security” is a very broad term, most investment transactions will be potentially subject to these laws, unless a special exemption is available.
Capital may be raised through private means, by public offer （IPO） on a stock exchange, or in many other ways. Major stock exchanges include the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq （USA）, the London Stock Exchange （UK）, the Tokyo Stock Exchange （Japan）, and so on. Most countries with capital markets have at least one.
Business that have gone “public” are subject to extremely detailed and complicated regulation about their internal governance （such as how executive officers’ compensation is determined） and when and how information is disclosed to the public and their shareholders. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission （SEC）. Other Western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.
46、機會成本
Opportunity cost is a central concept of microeconomics. The opportunity cost of any given choice is the most valuable forgone alternative that is, the second best alternative. A focus on opportunity cost rather than measures of accounting cost is a central characteristic of economic reasoning.
For example, if a city decides to build a hospital on vacant land it owns, the opportunity cost is the value of the benefits forgone of some other things which might have been done with the land and construction funds instead. In building the hospital, the city has forgone the opportunity to build a sporting center on that land, or a parking lot, or the ability to sell the land to reduce the city’s debt, since those uses tend to be mutually exclusive. Also included in the opportunity cost would be what investments or purchases the private sector would have voluntarily made if it were not taxed to build the hospital. The total opportunity costs of such an action can never be known with certainty （and are sometimes called “hidden costs” or “hidden losses”, what has been prevented from being produced cannot be seen or known）. Even the possibility of inaction is a lost opportunity （in this example, to preserve the scenery as-is for neighboring areas, perhaps including areas that it itself owns）.
47、能量理論
The power theory rejects some of the ideas the efficiency theory proposes. The efficiency theory attempts to explain why groups of individuals were motivated to form new corporations and not why they were able to. When corporations were formed, large amounts of resources were distributed unevenly. The efficiency theory treats uneven distribution as a flaw. The power theory treats the distribution of resources as important to the development of corporations. Also, if an industrialist is faced with the grim possibility of bankruptcy or a hope to merger, then they will most likely merger. The events that led to this decision involve power. People choose their own actions and make others act in a similar way with regards to their actions.
48、效率理論
The efficiency theory is a selection process that ensures that more efficient economic forms will prevail over less efficient forms. Under this theory, the invisible hand has replaced the visible hand. This reduced the costs of production and increased output per worker. The efficiency theory states that when people produce and distribute goods and services compete for scarce resources and only the truly efficient survive. According to the efficiency theory if something new is introduced to the marketplace it must be more efficient than its alternatives. An example of this is railroads. Railroads were developed because they were a more efficient way of traveling.
49、績效評定及其七大目的
Performance appraisal, also known as employee appraisal, is a method by which the performance of an employee is evaluated （generally in terms of quality, quantity, cost and time）. The roots of performance appraisal can be found in Frederick Winslow Taylor’s time and motion study. Performance appraisal is a part of career development. Performance appraisals are a regular review of employee performance within organizations.
Generally, the aims of a scheme are:
1.Give feedback on performance to employees.
2.Identify employee training needs.
3.Document criteria used to allocate organizational rewards.
4.Form a basis for personnel decisions: salary increases, promotions, disciplinary actions, etc.
5.Provide the opportunity for organizational diagnosis and development.
6.Facilitate communication between the employee and the administrator.
7.Validate selection techniques and human resource policies to meet federal Equal Employment Opportunity requirements.