9.Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society
10.De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
11.Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
12.Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and productions
19、工業化
Industrialization or an Industrial Revolution is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a pre-industrial society （an economy where the amount of capital accumulated per capita is low） to an industrial one （a fully developed capitalist economy）. It is a part of wider modernization process, where this social and economic change is closely related with technological innovation, particularly the development of large-scale energy and metallurgy production. Industrialization also introduces some form of philosophical change, or to a different attitude in the perception of nature.
The lack of a large industry sector is widely seen as a major handicap in a country’s economy, pushing many governments to encourage or enforce industrialization through artificial means.
When capitalized, Industrial Revolution refers to the first industrial revolution, which took place in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Second Industrial Revolution describes later, somewhat less dramatic changes which came about with the widespread availability of electric power, the internal-combustion engine and assembly lines.
20、現代化
Modernization is a concept in the sphere of social sciences that refers to process in which society goes through industrialization, urbanization and other social changes that completely transforms the lives of individuals.
The concept of modernization comes from a view of societies as having a standard evolutionary pattern, as described in the social evolutionism theories. According to this each society would evolve inexorably from barbarism to ever greater levels of development and civilization. The more modern states would be wealthier and more powerful, and their citizens freer and having a higher standard of living. This theory stressed the importance of societies being open to change and saw reactionary forces as restricting development. Maintaining tradition for tradition’s sake was thought to be harmful to progress and development.
This approach has been heavily criticized, mainly because it conflated modernization with Westernization. In this model, the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its replacement by a more Westernized one. Technically modernity simply refers to the present, and any society still in existence is therefore modern. Proponents of modernization typically view only Western society as being truly modern arguing that others are primitive or unevolved by comparison. This view sees unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have the same standard of living as Western societies. Opponents of this view argue that modernity is independent of culture and can be adapted to any society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some see it as proof that a thoroughly modern way of life can exist in a non-western society. Others argue that Japan has become distinctly more western as a result of its modernization.
Modernization can be seen as processes, and as offensives. The former view is commonly projected by politicians and the media, and suggests that it is developments, such as new data technology or dated laws, which make modernization necessary or preferable. This view makes critique of modernization difficult, since it implies that it is these developments which control the limits of human interaction, and not vice versa. The latter view of modernization as offensives argues that both the developments and the altered opportunities made available by these developments, is shaped and controlled by human agents. The view of modernization as offensives therefore sees it as a product of human planning and action, an active process capable of being both changed and criticized. Modernization is most likely one of the most influential happenings in society.
21、現代化理論
Theories of modernization have been developed and popularized in 1950sand 1960s
and are closely related to the dependency theory and development theory. It combines the previous theories of sociocultural evolution with practical experiences and empirical research, especially those from the era of decolonization.
The theory states that:
1.Western countries are the most developed, and rest of the world （mostly former colonies） are on the earlier stages of development, and will eventually reach the same level as the Western world.
2.Development stages go from the traditional societies to developed ones.
3.Third World countries have fallen behind with their social progress and need to be directed on their way to becoming more advanced.
Developing from classical social evolutionism theories, theory of modernization stresses the modernization factor: many societies are simply trying （or need to） emulate the most successful societies and cultures. It also states that it is possible to do so, thus supporting the concepts of social engineering and that the developed countries can and should help those less developed, directly or indirectly.
Theory of modernization has been subject to some criticism similar to that levied on classical social evolutionism, especially for being too ethnocentric, one-sided and focused on the Western world and culture.
22、現實主義與自然主義
Realism and Naturalism are ideas that are brought up in philosophical thinking. Both Realism and Naturalism are logical concepts upon how to describe the effects upon one’s self and are popularly expressed through art and literature. Though they seem similar, they, in many ways, greatly differ from one another. An example of these differences would be that their notions greatly contradict. Realism is defined as the belief that it is the person’s choices and actions that affect the outcome of that person, not the environment. This opposes the Naturalistic way of thinking which is that, it is the person’s surroundings and environment that affects the person’s outcome.
Realism and Naturalism were the leading forefront in Transcendentalists ideas and literature as well as art. And similarly, with different ideas, came about great novels.
23、社會理論：後工業社會及其六大特征
Scientists have used the theory of evolution to analyze various trends and to predict the future development of societies. These scientists have created the theories of post-industrial societies, arguing that the current era of industrial society is coming to an end, and services and information are becoming more important than industry and goods.
In 1974Daniel Bell, author of The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, introduced the concept of post-industrial society. Like many more classical evolutionists, he divided the history of humanity into three eras: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial. He predicted that by the end of the 20th century, United States, Japan and Western Europe would reach the post-industrial stage. This would be visible by:
1.domination of the service sector （administration, banking, trade, transport, healthcare, education, science, mass media, culture） over the traditional industry sector （manufacturing industries, which have surpassed the more traditional, agriculture and mining sector after the 19th-century Industrial Revolution）;
2.growing importance of information technologies;
3.increased role of long-term planning, modeling future trends;
4.domination of technocracy and pragmatism over traditional ethics and ideologies;
5.increasing importance and use of technology and intellect;
6.changes in the traditional hierarchy of social classes, with highly educated specialists and scientists overtaking the traditional bourgeois.
24、營利主義
Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds the prosperity of a nation depends upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of trade is “unchangeable”. Economic assets, or capital, are represented by bullion （gold, silver, and trade value） held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations （exports minus imports）. Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy, by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs. The economic policy based upon these ideas is often called the mercantile system.
Mercantilism was established during the early modern period （starting in the 16th to the 18th century, which roughly corresponded to the emergence of the nation-state）. This led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over market economies, and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established. Internationally, mercantilism encouraged the many European wars of the period, and fueled European imperialism, as the European powers fought over “available” markets. Belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, as the arguments of Adam Smith and the other classical economists won favor in the British Empire （among such advocates as Richard Cobden） and to a lesser degree in the rest of Europe （with the notable exception of Germany where the Historical school of economics was favored throughout the 19th and early 20th century）. Some have said that America chose not to adhere to classical economics, preferring a form of neo-mercantilism embodied by the “American School”, but in 1792Alexander Hamilton, basing his policies on his study of Adam Smith, established a gold standard designed to conform to that of Britain to promote international trade contrary to the mercantilist leaning of men like Thomas Jefferson. America drifted from the gold standard a number of times prior to the Great Depression, but always returned to the Hamilton gold standard. The Great Depression influenced American government to return to neo-mercantilism imposing high protectionist tariffs and suspending private ownership of gold. Finally, during the New Deal, the currency was devalued based on the government’s new neo-mercantilist leaning. Today, mercantilism has seen a resurgence in economic theories that focus on the trade surplus and deficit as determinants of monetary value, but mercantilism as a whole is rejected by many economists.
25、深度生態學
Deep ecology is a recent branch of ecological philosophy （ecosophy） that considers human kind an integral part of its environment. Deep ecology places greater value on non-human species, ecosystems and processes in nature than established environmental and green movements. Deep ecology has led to a new system of environmental ethics. The core principle of deep ecology as originally developed is the claim that all living things have the same right to live and flourish. Deep ecology describes itself as “deep” because it is concerned with fundamental philosophical questions about the role of human life as one part of the ecosphere, rather than with a narrow view of ecology as a branch of biological science, and aims to avoid merely utilitarian environmentalism.
26、深度生態學的八點原則
Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans. The ethics of deep ecology hold that a whole system is superior to any of its parts. They offer an eight-tier platform to elucidate their claims:
1.The well-being and flourishing of human and nonhuman life on Earth have value in themselves （synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent value）. These values are independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes.
2.Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves.
3.Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital human needs.
4.The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease.
5.Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.
6.Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.
7.The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality （dwelling in situations of inherent value） rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between big and great.
8.Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to try to implement the necessary changes.
27、深度生態學的內涵
The central spiritual tenet of deep ecology is that the human species is a part of the Earth and not separate from it. A process of self-realization or “re-earthing” is used for an individual to intuitively gain an ecocentric perspective. The notion is based on the idea that the more we expand the self to identify with “others” （people, animals, ecosystems）, the more we realize ourselves.
Ecological science, concerned with facts and logic alone, cannot answer ethical questions about how we should live. For this we need ecological wisdom. Deep ecology seeks to develop this by focusing on deep experience, deep questioning and deep commitment. These constitute an interconnected system. Each gives rise to and supports the other, whilst the entire system is an ecosophy:an evolving but consistent philosophy of being, thinking and acting in the world, which embodies ecological wisdom and harmony.
Beings cannot be ranked according to their relative value. For example, judgments on whether an animal has an eternal soul, whether it uses reason or whether it has consciousness （or indeed higher consciousness） have all been used to justify the ranking of the human animal over other animals. The right of all forms of life to live is a universal right which cannot be quantified. No single species of living being has more of this particular right to live and unfold than any other species. Human being and all other beings are aspects of a single unfolding reality. As such Deep Ecology would support the view that humans are plain members of the biotic community, and that a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.
28、深度生態學的主張
Deep Ecology offers a philosophical basis for environmental advocacy which may, in turn, guide human activity against perceived self-destruction. Deep ecology and environmentalism hold that the science of ecology shows that ecosystems can absorb only limited change by humans or other dissonant influences. Further, both hold that the actions of modern civilization threaten global ecological well-being. Ecologists have described change and stability in ecological systems in various ways, including homeostasis, dynamic equilibrium, and “flux of nature”. Regardless of which model is most accurate, environmentalists contend that massive human economic activity has pushed the biosphere far from its “natural” state through reduction of biodiversity, climate change, and other influences. As a consequence, civilization is causing mass extinction. Deep ecologists hope to influence social and political change through their philosophy.