The self-disciplines of one culture are always likely to seem irrelevancies to observ-ers from another country。
In the United States technical and traditional methods of self-discipline are relative-ly undeveloped。The American assumption is that a man，having sized up what is possi-ble in his personal life，will discipline himself，if that is necessary，to attain a chosen goal。Whether he does or not，depends on his ambition，or his conscience，or his“in-stinct of workmanship，”as Veblen called it。
The Japanese assumption，however，is that a boy taking his middle-school exami-nations，or a man playing in a fencing match，or a person merely living the life of an a-ristocrat，needs a self-training quite apart from learning the specific things that will be required of him when he is tested。No matter what facts he has crammed for his exami-nation，no matter how expert his sword thrusts，no matter how meticulous his punctilio，he needs to lay aside his books and his sword and his public appearances and undergo a special kind of training。
Their concepts of self-discipline can be schematically divided into those which give competence and those which give something more。This something more I shall call ex-pertness。The two are divided in Japan and aim at accomplishing a different result in the human psyche and have a different rationale and are recognized by different signs。Many instances of the first type，self。disciplinary competence，have already been described。The Army officer who said of his men who had been engaged in peacetime maneuvers for sixty hours with only ten-minute opportunities for sleep，that“they know how to sleep；they need training in how to stay awake，”was，in spite of what seem to us extreme de-mands，aiming only at competent behavior。He was stating a well-accepted principle of Japanese psychic economy that the will should be supreme over the almost infinitely teachable body and that the body itself does not have laws of well-being which a man ig-nores at his own cost。The whole Japanese theory of“human feelings”rests on this as-sumption。When it is a matter of the really serious affairs of life，the demands of the body，no matter how essential to health，no matter how approved and cultivated as things apart，should be drastically subordinated。
These ideas about sleep and food，however，are small in comparison with the whole Occidental concept of self-sacrifice。It is standard Western doctrine that parents make great sacrifices for their children，wives sacrifice their careers for their husbands，hus-bands sacrifice their freedom to become breadwinners。It is hard for Americans to con-ceive that in some societies men and women do not recognize the necessity of self-sacri-fice。It is nevertheless true。In such societies people say that parents naturally find their children delightful，that women prefer marriage to any other course，and that a man earning his family's support is pursuing his favorite occupation as a hunter or a gardener。Why talk of self-sacrifice？When society stresses these interpretations and allows people to live according to them，the notion of self-sacrifice may hardly be recognized。
In other cultures all those things a person does for other people at such“sacrifice”in the United States are considered as reciprocal exchanges。They are either investments which will later be repaid or they are returns for value already received。In such coun-tries even the relations between father and son may be treated in this way，and what the father does for the son during the boy's early life，the son will do for the father during the old man's later life and after his death。Every business relation too is a folk contract，which，while it often ensures equivalence in kind，just as commonly binds one party to protect and the other to serve。If the benefits on both sides are regarded as advantages，neither party regards his duties as a sacrifice。
The sanction behind services to others in Japan is of course reciprocity，both in kind and in hierarchal exchange of complementary responsibilities。The moral position of self-sacrifice is therefore very different from that in the United States。The Japanese have always objected specifically to the teachings of Christian missionaries about sacrifice。They argue that a good man should not think of what he does for others as frustrating to himself。A people who have organized their lives around such elaborate reciprocal obli-gations as the Japanese naturally find self-sacrifice irrelevant。They push themselves to the limit to fulfil extreme obligations，but the traditional sanction of reciprocity prevents them from feeling the self-pity and self-righteousness that arises so easily in more indi-vidualistic and competitive countries。
“Competent”self-discipline in Japan has this rationale that it improves a man's conduct of his own life。Any impatience he may feel while he is new in the training will pass，they say，for eventually he will enjoy it-or give it up。An apprentice tends properly to his business，a boy learns judo（jujitsu），a young wife adjusts to the de-mands of her mother-in-law；it is quite understood that in the first stages of training，the man or woman unused to the new requirements may wish to be free of this shuyo。Their fathers may talk to them and say，“What do you wish？Some training is necessary to sa-vor life。If you give this up and do not train yourself at all，you will be unhappy as a natural consequence。And if these natural consequences should occur，I should not be inclined to protect you against public opinion。”Shuyo，in the phrase they use so often，polishes away“the rust of the body。”It makes a man a bright sharp sword，which is，of course，what he desires to be。
Beyond and above“competent”self-discipline，there is also the plane of“expert-ness。”Japanese techniques of this latter sort have not been made very intelligible to Western readers by Japanese authors who have written about them，and Occidental scholars who have made a specialty of this subject have often been very cavalier about them。Sometimes they have called them“eccentricities。”The purposes their techniques are intended to accomplish，however，are not impenetrable，and the whole subject throws a considerable light on Japanese psychic economy。
A long series of Japanese words name the state of mind the expert in self-discipline is supposed to achieve。Some of these terms are used for actors，some for religious devo-tees，some for fencers，some for public speakers，some for painters，some for masters of the tea ceremony。They all have the same general meaning，and I shall use only the word muga，which is the word used in the flourishing upper-class cult of Zen Buddhism-The description of this state of expertness is that it denotes those experiences，wheth-er secular or religious，when“there is no break，not even the thickness of a hair”be-tween a man's will and his act。In people who have not attained expertness，there is，as it were，a non-conducting screen which stands between the will and the act。They call this the“observing self，”the“interfering self，”and when this has been removed by special kinds of training the expert loses all sense that“I am doing it。”The circuit runs free。The act is effortless。It is“one-pointed。”
Many civilizations have developed techniques of this kind，but the Japanese goals and methods have a marked character all their own。This is especially interesting be-cause many of the techniques are derived from India where they are known as Yoga。Japanese techniques of self-hypnotism，concentration，and control of the senses still show kinship with Indian practices。There is similar emphasis on emptying the mind，on immobility of the body，on ten thousands of repetitions of the same phrase，on fixing the attention on a chosen symbol。Even the terminology used in India is still recognizable。Beyond these bare bones of the cult，however，the Japanese version has little in common with the Hindu。
Yoga in India is an extreme cult of asceticism。It is a way of obtaining release from the round of reincarnation。Man has no salvation except this release，nirvana，and the obstacle in his path is human desire。These desires can be eliminated by starving them out，by insulting them，and by courting self-torture。Through these means a man may reach sainthood and achieve spirituality and union with the divine。Yoga is a way of re-nouncing the world of the flesh and of escaping the treadmill of human futility。It is also a way of laying hold of spiritual powers。The journey toward one's goal is the faster the more extreme the asceticism。