28.時尚的概念
段落大意：時尚指特定時期流行的服裝樣式，也意味著樣式的不斷改變。
Fashion refers to clothing that is in style at a particular time. The concept of fashion implies a process of change of style. Since fashions in dress, as well as in furniture and other objects, have taken very different forms at different times in history, this process has always been ongoing. When English playwright William Shakespeare observed in the 16th century that “the fashion wears out more apparel （衣服） than the man,”he meant that clothing becomes unfashionable long before it has worn out.
29.時尚的演變
段落大意：過去隻有上層人士才能穿著時尚。從20世紀開始，時尚迅速發生著變化，大多數人都開始追求時尚。
Back in Shakespeare’s day, only upper-class people dressed fashionably, while the mass of the rural peasantry （農民） wore simple clothing that hardly changed over many generations. Since the beginning of the 20th century, however, fashions have changed rapidly. We would look strange indeed if we wore the clothes whose style belongs to our great-grandparents. And most people—at least in the West—follow fashion to some extent, because fashion refers to much more than the haute couture （高級時裝）, the exclusive and expensive clothing produced by leading designers. Even schoolchildren are aware that fashions exist, and change, in running shoes. Nevertheless, we do tend to distinguish, however imprecisely, between basic clothing, such as blue jeans, parkas （帶風帽的皮外套）, and T-shirts, and the latest trendy fashions created by fashion designers.
30.時尚對社會的反映
段落大意：時尚反映了當時的社會，受戰爭、法律、宗教和藝術等因素影響，能表現當時人們的生活方式。
Fashion reflects the society of which it is a part. It has been influenced by wars, conquests, laws, religion, and the arts. Individual personalities also have an impact on fashion. Royalty and heads of state have set fashion, and since the 20th century media stars have emerged as leaders of fashion. French writer Anatole France said that if he could come back to earth 100.years after his death and have only one thing to read, he would choose a fashion magazine because it would show him the way people lived.
31.對時尚的批評
段落大意：時尚被指責為非理性的、輕佻的、專橫的和不道德的，但時尚是人們創造出來的，其本身並無過錯。
Fashion also has its critics, who have at times denounced （譴責） fashion as irrational, frivolous （輕佻的）, tyrannical, and immoral. Why should pink be in fashion one season and gray the next? Why do people follow fashion like sheep when they have enough clothes already? A common accusation is that fashion designers accelerate fashion change to create new business. Yet no new fashion succeeds until people are ready to accept it. The final decision about what to buy, or whether to buy anything at all, lies in the hands of the consumers. Ultimately, fashions change because many people like new and different styles.
32.時尚的起源與早期發展
段落大意：縱觀曆史，文化與時尚有著緊密的聯係。時尚起源於中世紀晚期文藝複興時，與商業貿易的發展及資本主義經濟製度的興起密切相關。
Many cultures through history have followed fashion. Styles of clothing have changed as a result of contact with other societies and competition for status within a society. Yet not until the 14th and 15th centuries, during the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance （文藝複興時期）, did styles begin to follow a regular pattern of change in Europe. The beginning of fashion dates from that time.
The beginning of fashion is associated with the growth of trade and business and the rise of the economic system known as capitalism. In 1423.the doge （總督） （ruler） of Venice, an Italian city-state, observed, “Now we have invested in our silk industry a capital of 10.million ducats（曾在歐洲通用的金幣） and we make 2.millions annually in export trade; 16,000.weavers live in our city.”The luxury fabrics produced in Venice were satins（緞子）, velvets（天鵝絨）, and brocades（織錦）. Renaissance paintings depict these magnificent textiles（紡織品）, which were produced in many small workshops organized in a system of guilds（行會）. Textile production was also carried out in people’s homes using inventions new to Europe, such as the spinning wheel （紡車）.
33.歐洲曾經的時尚
段落大意：整個西歐的時尚服飾是相當標準的，本段詳細描述了16世紀的時尚服飾。
Fashionable items of clothing came from all parts of Europe, and fashionable dress was fairly standard throughout Western Europe. By the 16th century a fashionable man’s attire （服裝） consisted of a white linen （亞麻布的） shirt and a doublet （緊身上衣） （fitted jacket）, and over it a looser jacket or short cape （披肩）, which a man might hang from one shoulder. Hose （緊身褲） （thick tights） attached to the doublet and covered the legs. Hose might fit snugly （貼身地） or be loose around the hips （臀部） and stuffed with padding （襯墊）. Short padded breeches （短褲） were known as trunk hose and took several shapes, depending on the used padding. Women’s dresses had tight bodices（緊身胸衣） with a stiff panel, called a stomacher（三角胸衣）, which extended over the chest and abdomen. Sleeves and skirts were full and were made with ample fabric so they puffed （膨大） out. Both men and women wore white ruffs （飛邊）, which were stiff, pleated （褶皺的） collars.
34.時尚與權力
段落大意：時尚隨權力的變化而變化。
Fashion tends to follow power. During most of the 15th century, Venice and other Italian city-states held economic power in Europe, but the center of power shifted to Spain after navigator Christopher Columbus made his first voyage to the Americas for Spain in 1492. During the 16th century the Spanish style increasingly dominated （統治）European fashion. Men at the Spanish royal court favored black clothing, with a large white ruff at the throat. The fashionable silhouette（輪廓） for both men and women became bulky （龐大的） and stiff. Men’s short breeches and doublets were padded. Skirts became wider and were supported by a farthingale （裙環） 〔hoop petticoat （襯裙）〕, also known as a wheel or drum, which grew wider toward the bottom. Upper-class women adopted a boned corset（緊身胸衣）, which flattened and narrowed the upper body.
35.時尚與王室形象
段落大意：時尚可以打造令人印象深刻的王室形象，伊麗莎白一世通過華麗的裝飾來強調她的權力。
Fashion also helped create an impressive royal image. Queen Elizabeth I of England, for example, used fashion to support her political authority, to create a powerful image and to assert her legitimacy. Ornate （華麗的） garments encrusted（鑲嵌） with jewels, gold, and other decoration asserted her power and her right to rule, even though she was a woman.
36.路易十四時的法國時尚
段落大意：在路易十四時期，法國引領著世界時尚。
France achieved a dominant position in the world’s political affairs and fashions during the reign of King Louis XIV, from 1643.to 1715. All of Europe followed French fashions except Spain. In France and elsewhere the women’s farthingale went out of style and was replaced by a stately gown （長袍） worn with a bustle （腰墊） （padded frame at the back） and a train （裙裾） that trailed behind. The gown’s bodice （緊身胸衣） typically ended in a V-shape over the abdomen, and bright colors gained favor. In Spain the farthingale remained fashionable and spread to the sides even farther than it had before.
37.法國宮廷成為時尚中心及引起的爭論
段落大意：路易十四時期，法國宮廷成為西方時尚的中心。 時尚引起人們的廣泛關注，並引發爭議，有人認為其破壞了嚴格的社會階層。
Under Louis XIV the French court at Versailles （凡爾賽） became the center of Western fashion, and fashionable clothing was produced nearby, in Paris. Paris remained the capital of women’s fashion for the next 300.years. Because of fashion’s tremendous importance, it attracted huge attention and produced controversy. Moralists in France and elsewhere argued that fashion undermined the rigid social hierarchy because middle-class people could copy the fashions of the aristocracy （貴族） by buying secondhand the very clothes that their social superiors had once worn. These critics deplored （哀歎） the fact that even a milkmaid could look like a lady.
38.時尚在英國引起的爭論
段落大意：時尚在英國引起了爭論，在某種程度上代表著不同的信仰。
Fashion inspired controversy in England because it satisfied women’s vanity as women competed with one another for elegance in dress. Even though changes in fashion promoted clothing industry, keeping up with fashion proved expensive. Clothing in England during the 17th century came to symbolize the difference in beliefs between cavaliers （騎士）, who supported the king and wore luxurious, colorful aristocratic garb（裝束）, and their political opponents, the austerely （嚴肅地） dressed Puritans, who wore dark, drab colors （黃褐色）. When Puritans settled New England in the 1600s in America, they brought with them the Puritan styles then current in England.
39.衣著與社會
段落大意：18世紀，衣著標誌著社會地位。許多歐洲國家立法規定著裝，以此來區分貴族和中產階級。法國大革命則標誌著自由著裝的開端。
Clothing continued to function as a social sign in the 18th century. Many European countries regulated ostentation （虛飾） in dress by law, thereby maintaining distinctions between the dress of the aristocracy and that of the bourgeoisie（中產階級）（middle class）. In France these so-called sumptuary （禁止奢侈浪費的） laws also were intended to limit the import of costly fabrics. Yet as the middle class grew and its members became wealthier through trade, they began to demand equality with the upper classes in both politics and dress. The French Revolution （1789-1799） had a great impact on fashion and marked the end of the old system and the beginning of a new freedom of dress.
40.法國大革命後的著裝
段落大意：法國大革命後，著裝象征著平等，而不是社會地位。
After the French Revolution, clothing in France served as a powerful symbol of equality rather than a sign of status. Male volunteers in the revolutionary army, who generally came from the lower classes, were known as sans-culottes（無短褲者）（without breeches） because they wore trousers of homespun （家裏織的） fabric rather than the elegant knee breeches of the aristocracy. Their trousers became a symbol of the forces for democracy. By the early 19th century, ankle-length trousers had replaced knee breeches as the standard male garment, and the plain dark suit had become increasingly prevalent（流行的）. Other items of apparel（衣服） frowned upon after the French Revolution were powdered wigs（假發）, high-heeled shoes （worn by men and women）, embroidered （刺繡的） waistcoats, and other aristocratic fashions of the earlier 18th century.
41.時尚與英國社會
段落大意：英國社會對宮廷的關注度沒有法國大，因此王室對英國時尚的影響力更小。
Social life in England centered less on the royal court than it did in France, and royalty thus had less influence on English fashions. Neither gaudy （俗麗的） nor ostentatious（華美的）, the English suit had an air of elegance, the result of its beautiful tailoring. Foreigners observed that Englishmen usually wore plain dark suits. This observation held true for both the rising middle class and significant segments （部分） of the English aristocracy, especially country gentlemen. A spirit of cultural nationalism led many English people to regard their clothing as functionally and morally superior to styles on the European continent. A division developed between Paris, which continued to dominate women’s fashion until well into the 20th century, and London, which became the center of men’s fashion.
42.經濟發展和文化對英國時尚的影響
段落大意：英國的經濟發展和文化影響力是男士時尚變化的一個原因。
A reason for the change in men’s fashions was the growing economic and cultural influence of England. By the 1770s, even before the French and American revolutions, plainer, simpler men’s clothing was perceived in England as more democratic and more natural. The outline narrowed, sleeves became longer and less full, and colors were generally less vivid.
43.工業化和技術進步對時尚的影響
段落大意：合成染料的發展促進服裝顏色的多元化，工業化和技術進步使大規模製衣成為可能。
The development of synthetic（人造的） dyes（染料） led to the popularity of extremely bright colors, which replaced the pastel （柔和的） colors that were previously fashionable. Industrialization and technology contributed to the ongoing democratization of style in the 19th century. The sewing machine, patented （取得專利）in 1846, and the improvements made to it by American inventor Isaac Singer, made it possible to produce several hundred stitches（針腳） a minute, a vast improvement over the hand-sewing rate of 30.or 40.stitches a minute. Although most clothing continued to be sewn by hand for some time, the sewing machine contributed to the mass production of ready-made（現成的） clothing, which was increasingly affordable to many. As a result, the middle class could wear the same styles as the wealthy.
44.大眾傳媒對時尚的影響
段落大意：大眾傳媒的發展加速了時尚信息向中產階級的傳播。
The growth of mass media also spread fashion information to the middle class. Godey’s Lady’s Book, for example, a periodical （期刊） first published in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1830, brought sketches （素描） of French fashions to the United States. Developments in photography in the 1840s led to wide reproduction of photographs of elegant women. In 1860.Demorest brought out a magazine to promote her patterns. Mail-order catalogues spread recent styles to rural areas. In Canada the Toronto retailing firm Eaton issued its first catalogue in 1884.
45.男士著裝的變化
段落大意：與女士時尚相反，深色開始主導男裝。男士服飾上的一些細微差異標誌著不同的社會地位。
In contrast to women’s fashions, dark, sober colors, especially black, triumphed in menswear （男裝）. Gone were brightly colored men’s suits, although a man might wear a colorful vest or a brilliantly colored dressing gown in the privacy of his home. A multitude of minute （細微的） distinctions indicated a man’s status in the society. A gentleman wore a top hat, for example, whereas a worker wore a soft cap.
46.20世紀的一些時尚風潮
段落大意：20世紀初，成衣愈加重要，將時尚帶給普通百姓。女士的服飾受到男性簡潔特征的影響，套裝成為辛勤工作和認真思索的標誌。
During the first decades of the 20th century, ready-to-wear clothing became more important over the course of the century, and brought affordable fashion to most people. Women increasingly adopted the suit, at least during business hours, from the 1970s on as they entered the higher ranks of the workforce in greater numbers. Moreover, as early as the 1920s, masculine （男性的） simplicity had begun to influence the female wardrobe through the revolutionary designs of Coco Chanel. For both men and women, the suit has served as the visible sign of hard work and serious thought.
47. “一戰”對時尚的影響
段落大意：“一戰”對時尚並沒有太多的直接影響。然而，其間接影響著時尚，弱化了社會等級製度。
World War I had relatively little direct impact on fashion. French fashion houses continued to design, produce, and export. Contrary to a popular belief, fashion did not become more practical and suited to wartime living. Although skirts became shorter, this was not the result of a wartime shortage of material. The dominant style in 1915.and 1916.was a calf-length （小腿長度的）, very full skirt known as a war crinoline （硬布裙子）. The war did have an indirect impact on fashion, however. It weakened the prewar social structure and led the younger generation to question the wisdom of their elders.
48.國際時尚與傳統文化的結合
段落大意：世界各地的人們都喜歡追逐時尚，不同地方的人會把國際流行元素與本地文化傳統結合起來。
People all around the world like to follow fashion, although the styles are not always Western. They may combine elements of international fashion with those of their own culture’s traditional clothing, or they may choose to wear primarily traditional clothes. In India, for example, where many women wear the sari （莎麗）, fashion magazines carry pictures of international models and also interpret the sari in terms of fashion. In this system, the colors and patterns of the sari change according to the latest fashion, and fashion designers, photographers, editors, and models promote the season’s fashionable saris.
49.運動對男士服飾的影響
段落大意：運動影響了男士著裝，使男士服裝越來越多元化。
As dress has become less formal, men have become increasingly concerned with style, color, and patterns in their clothing. Participation in sports has also influenced men’s clothing. It has increased the size of the male wardrobe: golf, tennis, and skiing, for example, require specific apparel. Beyond this, a growing emphasis has been placed on functionalism in clothing. Athletic shoes, for example, are worn on the street, as well as during athletic activities. Today many top fashion designers have casual sportswear （運動裝） lines, for example the Emporio Armani line by Armani, include casual items such as sweatshirts.
50.名人對時尚的影響
段落大意：現在，名人對時尚有著重要的影響，音樂家、演員、運動員等經常會引領新的時尚。
Today, celebrities are significant in establishing new fashion trends. Musicians, actors, sports figures, and other performers frequently launch or popularize new fashions. The role of fashion leader has also been assumed by the manufacturers of men’s apparel, who through advertising and public relations techniques are able to acquaint millions of men with a new fashion idea in a matter of weeks.
51.時尚與著裝
段落大意：時尚指特定時期內流行的著裝樣式。在不同時期，最流行的著裝也會不同。
Fashion refers to the kinds of clothing that are in a desirable style at a particular time. At different times in history, fashionable dress has taken very different forms. In modern times nearly everyone follows fashion to some extent. However, only a small minority of people dress in the clothing that appears in high-fashion magazines or on fashion-show runways.
52.基本著裝與時裝
段落大意：基本著裝和時裝有時很難區分，特別是現在，時尚設計師經常會用一些便宜且實用的材料來設計時裝。
It is not always easy to tell the difference between basic clothing and fashionable clothing. Especially today, fashion designers often use inexpensive and functional items of clothing as inspiration. Blue jeans, for instance, originated as functional work clothing for miners and farmers. Yet today, jeans, T-shirts, and sports clothes have already experienced numerous fashionable styles. One year, fashionable jeans may have narrow legs, and the next year the legs may be baggy.
53.對平民日常服飾的研究
段落大意：服飾曆史學家在研究服飾時發現，關於平民服飾的資料少之又少，因為往往隻有富有階層的時尚服飾才會受到關注，而且人們的日常服飾一直都在發生著變化。
Clothing historians trace the development of dress by studying various sources, including magazines and catalogues, paintings and photographs, and hats, shoes, and other surviving items. Reliable evidence about everyday clothing from the past can be hard to obtain because most publications and images concern the fashions of the wealthy. Furthermore, clothing that has survived from the past tends not to be typical of what was worn in daily life. Museum collections are full of fashionable ball gowns, for example, but have very few everyday dresses worn by ordinary working-class women. Even fewer examples of ordinary men’s clothing have been saved. Images, such as paintings, prints, and photographs, do provide considerable evidence of the history of everyday clothing. These sources indicate that although everyday clothing does not usually change as rapidly as fashionable dress, it does change constantly.
54.服飾與身份
段落大意：現代學者認為，服飾是身份的象征，也是一種非語言交流。不管在過去還是現在，服飾都能提供有關著裝者的諸多信息。
Modern scholars believe that clothing provides a mark of identity and a means of nonverbal （非語言的） communication. In traditional societies, clothing functioned almost as a language that could indicate a person’s age, gender, marital status, place of origin, religion, social status, or occupation. In modern industrialized societies, clothing is not so rigidly regulated and people have more freedom to choose which messages they wish to convey. Nevertheless, clothing can still provide considerable information about the wearer, including individual personality, economic standing, even the nature of events attended by the wearer. When a woman who usually wears blue jeans puts on a frilly （鑲褶邊的）, flowered dress, she may be on a date because she looks more traditionally feminine. A person wearing a T-shirt emblazoned （用紋章裝飾） with the name of a rock band is probably a fan of that music group and may have attended one of the group’s concerts.
55.社會地位與服飾
段落大意：服飾代表著人們的社會地位與角色，不同身份的人會穿著不同的服飾。
A society’s economic structure and its culture, traditions, and way of life, also influence the clothing that its people wear. In many societies, religious laws regulated personal behavior and stated that only members of aristocracy could wear certain prestigious items of clothing. Even in modern democracies, clothing may represent social standing. Clothing with a designer label tends to be relatively expensive, so it may function as an outward sign of a person’s wealth. Clothing most obviously defines a social role in the case of uniforms, such as those worn by police officers and nurses, and garments （衣服） worn by clergy or members of religious orders. Clothing metaphors （隱喻）, such as blue-collar and white-collar workers, are used to distinguish between types of work （factory or office, in this example）.