1.道德發展的概念
段落大意：道德發展與心理成長的其他方麵緊密相關，是個終生的過程。
Moral development concerns the development of moral values and behavior. Moral values are beliefs about what is right and wrong, and moral behavior refers to actions consistent with these beliefs. Moral development is closely tied to other aspects of psychological growth. The ability to think and reason enables moral judgment. Emotional development leads to moral values and empathy（移情）. Personality development includes the growth of conscience. Moral development is a lifelong process, especially as individuals encounter new and more complex ethical （倫理的） dilemmas in relations with peers, at the workplace, and in intimate relationships.
2.道德責任、因果責任與法律責任
段落大意：道德責任、因果責任與法律責任三者既不相同，又相互關聯。
Moral responsibility is both related to and different from causal （因果的） responsibility and legal responsibility. People are causally responsible for events when those events are directly brought about by their actions. Often when people have moral responsibility for a situation, they also have causal responsibility for it. Someone who is praised for acting in a morally responsible way has usually caused some good state of affairs to occur. A case to show that a person has moral responsibility but not causal responsibility for a situation would be like this. Susan asks her neighbor John to take care of her baby so that she can attend a job interview the next day. However, John fails to keep his promise and Susan can’t make her interview. John might claim that there was nothing in his action that caused his neighbor to fail to go to the job interview and she could have taken her child with her, or found some other babysitter, for example. Nevertheless, he may still be morally responsible for her failing to attend the interview. A person is legally responsible for his or her actions when it is that person who will be penalized （處刑） in the court system for an event that has occurred. Although, it may often be the case that if a person is morally responsible for some acts, he is also legally responsible for them. However, there are clearly exceptions to this rule. Rules of law and rules of ethics do not always overlap （重疊）.
3.倫理道德的發展史
段落大意：自人們居住在一起後，道德規範對群體的利益就變得必不可少。倫理道德被規範化，成為行為標準。
Since people lived together in social groups, the moral regulation of behavior has been necessary to the group’s well-being. Although the morals were formalized and made into arbitrary （專製的） standards of conduct, they developed, sometimes irrationally, after religious taboos were violated, or out of chance （偶然） behavior that became habit and then custom, or from laws imposed by chiefs to prevent disharmony in their tribes. Even the great ancient Egyptian civilizations developed no systematized ethics. Maxims （警句） and precepts （訓誡） set down by secular （非宗教的） leaders were mingled with a strict religion that affected the behavior of every Egyptian. In ancient China the maxims of Confucius （孔子） were accepted as a moral code （道德標準）. The Greek philosophers, beginning in about the 6th century BC, theorized intensively about moral behavior, which led to the further development of philosophical ethics.
4.道德發展與無私行為
段落大意：道德發展同樣影響著無私行為的形成。
Moral development also influences the development of altruistic （無私心的） behavior, actions such as sharing, cooperating, and helping performed for the benefit of others without expectation of a reward. Studies indicate that the motivation to act altruistically emerges very early. Young children are motivated to do the right thing primarily because they want to maintain warm relationships with caregivers （照看人） and others who matter to them, not simply to avoid punishment, as was once believed.
5.影響道德觀形成的因素
段落大意：小孩通過父母的行為準則以及與父母的日常交談獲取是非觀念。此外，他們也通過對他人悲苦的感受來獲得道德發展。
Young children acquire a sense of right and wrong partly through parental discipline, but also in everyday conversations with their parents, who convey simple lessons about people’s feelings, the consequences of breaking rules, and what it takes to be a “good boy”or “good girl.”Another resource for early moral growth is the empathy that young children feel for the distress of others. For example, when parents or peers are upset, toddlers （初學走路的孩子） often look concerned and try to assist them. Psychologists continue to explore how interaction between parents and their young children contributes to the development of conscience and to the growth of caring for other people.
6.個性的概念
段落大意：個性是根深蒂固的思維模式、感情模式和行為模式，是一人區別於他人的一種特征。
Personality is deeply ingrained （根深蒂固） and relatively enduring patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior. Personality usually refers to what is unique about a person, the characteristics that distinguish him or her from other people. Thought, emotion, and behavior as such do not constitute a personality, which is, rather, the dispositions （性情） that underlie these elements. Personality implies predictability （可預測性） about how a person will act or react under certain circumstances.
7.對個性的兩種不同看法
段落大意：心理學家們對個性與性格特征的關係、個性的穩定性具有不同的看法。
Traditionally, psychologists hold that traits of an individual combine to form one’s personality, and that personality shows great consistency over time. Recently, however, many psychologists have argued that traits exist only in the eye of the beholder （觀察者）, and that a person’s personality varies with the situation.
8.兩種不同的個性理論
段落大意：弗洛伊德認為，無意識的衝動對行為有很大的影響；斯金納則認為，個性的形成主要受學習的影響。
Theorists emphasize different aspects of personality and disagree about its organization, development, and manifestation （體現） in behavior. One of the most influential theoretical systems is the psychoanalytic （心理分析的） theory of Sigmund Freud and his followers. Freud believed that unconscious （無意識的） processes direct a great part of a person’s behavior. Although a person is unaware of these impulses and drives, they strive to assert themselves. Another influential theory of personality is derived from behaviorism （行為主義）. This view, represented by thinkers such as the American psychologist B. F. Skinner, places primary emphasis on learning. According to Skinner human behavior is determined largely by its consequences. If rewarded, behavior recurs （再發生）; if punished, it is less likely to recur.
9.遺傳和環境共同影響著個性
段落大意：遺傳和環境共同影響著個性的形成。
Heredity （遺傳） and environment interact to form personality. From the earliest age, infants differ widely because of variables（可變因素） that either are inherited or result from conditions of pregnancy and birth. Some infants are more attentive（專心的） than others, for example, whereas some are more active. These differences can influence how parents respond to the infant, which is the illustration of how hereditary conditions affect environmental ones. Among the personality characteristics that are known to be at least partly determined by heredity are intelligence and temperament （性情）.
In addition to the influences of heredity, what happens to a developing child has a greater or lesser effect depending on when it happens. Many psychologists believe that critical periods exist in personality development. These are periods when an individual is more sensitive to a particular type of environmental event. During one period, for example, language ability changes most rapidly. During another, the capacity for guilt is most likely to be developing.
10.家庭環境和遺傳對個性的影響程度
段落大意：個性發展研究中的一個難題是確定家庭成長環境和遺傳因素對個性的影響程度。
One of the scientific challenges of studying personality development is determining the extent to which personality is based on family upbringing（撫養） or on genetically inherited dispositions. Certainly, parents influence their children’s personalities with many important factors. However, parents and their biological children are also genetically related, and studies of identical twins raised by different families have concluded that much of the resemblance between parents’ and children’s personalities is based on hereditary similarity. Even so, many characteristics in children are not easily explained by heredity, which makes continued study of the interaction of genes and family influence—nature and nurture （養育）—important to developmental science.
11.家庭環境對個性形成至關重要
段落大意：家庭環境對孩子個性的形成至關重要。嬰兒時期的基本需求是否得到很好的滿足，以及兒童時期的教育，對個性形成都有著長遠的影響。
Most experts believe that a child’s experiences in the family are crucial for the personality development. How well basic needs are met in infancy, along with later patterns of upbringing, can leave a permanent mark on personality. Children whose toilet training is started too early or carried out too rigidly, for example, may become defiant （反叛的）. Children learn behavior appropriate to their sex by identifying with their same-sex parent, and a warm relationship with that parent facilitates （促進） such learning. Children are also influenced by their siblings （兄弟姐妹）.
12.社會文化傳統對個性的影響
段落大意：一些專家認為社會文化傳統對個性發展有著重要的影響。
Some authorities emphasize the role of social and cultural traditions in personality development. In describing the behavior of members of two New Guinea tribes, for example, the American anthropologist Margaret Mead demonstrated this cultural relationship. Although the tribes are of the same race and live in the same area, one group is peaceful, friendly, and cooperative, whereas the other is assertive （專斷的）, hostile （懷有敵意的）, and competitive.
13.早期衝突與父母的行為對個性的影響
段落大意：早期衝突和父母的行為對個性的形成有著重要的影響。
The conflicts occurring in the earlier developmental stages are no less significant as a formative （形成期的） influence, because these problems represent the earliest prototypes （原型） of such basic human situations as dependency on others and relationship to authority. Also basic in molding （塑造） individual personality is the behavior of parents toward their children during these stages of development. The fact that children react, not only to objective reality, but also to fantasy distortions （扭曲） of reality, greatly complicates even the best-intentioned educational efforts.
14.個性發展涉及的範圍
段落大意：個性發展不但與社會發展和情感發展緊密相連，而且還包括性情的形成、個性發展、目標與價值觀的形成等。
The study of personality development explores how the distinctive qualities of people develop over life, including their characteristic social and emotional dispositions, self-concept, views of the world, and ways of acting and thinking. Personality development is closely related to social and emotional development, but it is much broader. It encompasses （包含） the emergence of a distinctive temperament early in life, growth in self-understanding and identity, formation of personal goals and values, and the influence of one’s adult roles, such as marital （婚姻的） partner, parent, and worker.
15.動機 I：原始動機
段落大意：原始動機不是後天習得的，而是與生俱來的。大部分原始動機都源於生理需求。
Drive, in psychology, refers to motivation or compulsion （衝動） behind actions or desires. The term is sometimes used in the same sense as the words“motive”and“need.”Primary drives are not learned but are present in an organism from birth or appear with growth. Most primary drives are the direct result of physiological needs. For example, a person’s need for food produces the hunger drive at regular intervals（間隔）. Some psychologists have held that other drives, such as curiosity and fear, are primary drives, even though they do not stem directly from bodily needs.
16.動機 II：衍生動機
段落大意：衍生動機通過後天習得，可作為滿足原始動機的手段。
Secondary drives, in contrast, are acquired by the individual organism through learning, and they may originate as a means of fulfilling primary drives. For example, a child may come to desire money because he or she has learned that it is a means of satisfying a primary drive for food. Eventually, as an adult, the individual may strive for money to fulfill goals, such as going to the theater, buying books, or taking trips. People of all ages develop social drives, such as the drive for security, the approval of others, and status.
17.引發攻擊行為的因素
段落大意：家庭、文化、同輩和其他環境因素會影響人的攻擊行為。此外，挫折、噪音、炎熱天氣、身體病痛等也會引發攻擊行為。
Most social psychologists who study aggression emphasize the roles of family, culture, peers, and other environmental factors. In particular, these researchers have found that aggression can be triggered （觸發） by frustration, noise, hot weather, physical pain, and other unpleasant states. Other situational factors that may trigger aggression include the sight of weapons, feelings of anonymity （無名） in a large faceless crowd, and the consumption of alcohol and other drugs. Over the years, hundreds of studies have also shown that viewing large amounts of television violence can increase aggressive behavior, particularly in children.