18.基本歸因錯誤
段落大意：人們在解釋他人行為時，傾向於高估個人因素的作用，而低估具體環境的影響。
Over the years, research has shown that when we explain the behavior of others, we tend to overestimate the role of personal factors and underestimate the influence of situations. This bias is so universal that it has been called the fundamental attribution （歸因） error. In one demonstration of the fundamental attribution error, experimenters randomly assigned subjects（實驗對象） to participate in a quiz in the role of either questioner or contestant. Then in front of the contestant and an observer, the experimenters told the questioner to devise （設計） a set of difficult questions to ask the contestant. Not surprisingly, many of the questions, created from the questioner’s own store of esoteric （機密的） knowledge, stumped （難住） the contestant. Yet when asked to rate the general knowledge of both the questioners and contestants, observers consistently saw the questioners as more knowledgeable （博學的） than the contestants. The observers failed to take the situational roles into account and attributed the behavior they witnessed to each person’s level of knowledge.
19.旁觀者在什麼情形下會提供幫助
段落大意：在一些特殊情形下，旁觀者會給需要幫助的人提供幫助，如情緒不錯時、時間允許時、其他人提供幫助時或在小城鎮裏等。
Some studies show that bystanders often do not assist needy victims when in the presence of others. However, there are situations in which people do intervene. For example, researchers have found that individuals are more helpful to others when they are in a good mood, when they have time to help, when they see someone else offer help, when they are in a small town rather than a big city, or when they believe that the help-seeker is deserving of assistance. Research also confirms that people sometimes offer help to those who need it for purely altruistic （無私的） reasons, out of a sense of empathy and compassion.
20.偏見及其產生的三大原因
段落大意：偏見產生的三大原因：思維僵化、對有限資源的直接競爭、貶低他人以提升自我價值感。
Another prevalent （普遍的） and disturbing human phenomenon is prejudice, the negative evaluation of others based solely on their membership in a particular group. The tendency to stereotype is one cause of prejudice, but there are at least two other causes as well. First, prejudices often stem from direct competition for valuable but limited resources. This competition between groups can trigger conflict, frustration, and hostility （敵對狀態或情緒）. Second, people may demean（貶低） others, without realizing it, in order to boost their own sense of self-worth. Research shows that people derive （取得） pride from their connections to successful others, and that berating （斥責） other groups can make people feel more secure about their own group. This finding may explain why people all over the world believe that their own nationality, culture, and religion are better and more deserving than those of other people.
21.群體思維
段落大意：當處於群體中時，個體容易變得懶散，產生群體思維模式，即過度尋求一致性、壓製不同見解以保持群體和諧性，並盲目相信群體立場的正確性。
Research has shown that people often “loaf”（懶散）, which means exerting less effort than they could when they participate in cooperative joint （聯合的） activities such as a tug-of-war（拔河）. Studies also show that decision-making groups often fall victim to groupthink, a phenomenon in which group members excessively seek group concurrence （一致）, suppress dissent（異議） to maintain group harmony, and blindly convince themselves that the group’s position is correct. Groupthink is a process that can lead groups to make hasty, often bad decisions.
22.個體在群體中的行為變化
段落大意：研究發現，個體處於群體中時，行為會發生很大變化，會傾向於簡單易學的任務。
When people assemble （聚集） in groups, profound changes often take place in their behavior. Perhaps the most basic question in social psychology is “How does the presence of other people affect an individual’s behavior?”To seek to answer this question, researchers have discovered that the presence of others facilitates an individual’s performance on simple, well-learned tasks but impairs（削弱） performance on new or complex tasks. For example, people asked to solve simple multiplication （乘法） problems solve them faster with others present than by themselves, but they perform worse on more complex math problems.
23.人與人之間相互吸引的原因
段落大意：人們傾向於喜歡外表有吸引力的人、與自己有相同興趣愛好和態度的人，更喜歡處於對自身有利的關係中。
Why are we drawn to some people more than others? What sparks （點燃） an initial attraction, and what factors then lead two people to form and maintain an intimate relationship? Seeking answers to these questions, researchers who study the process of interpersonal attraction have observed some consistent human tendencies. For example, they have found that familiarity breeds（培育） fondness, that people tend to like others who are physically attractive, and that people get along best with others who have similar attitudes and interests. Another research finding agrees with the common sense that people tend to stay in relationships that provide relatively more rewards than costs. Rewards may include companionship, love, emotional support, and sexual gratification. Examples of costs are conflicts between partners, less independence, and giving up opportunities in order to sustain the relationship.
24.成見
段落大意：成見將整個群體與一定特征聯係起來，其存在於所有社會，雖有助於簡化對世界的認識，但其往往是過度概括。
Stereotypes refer to generalized beliefs that associate whole groups of people with certain traits. Stereotyping is widespread and can be found in all societies. For example, many Americans assume that women are nurturing （養育）, African Americans are athletic, librarians are reserved, Californians are laid back（悠閑的）, and used-car dealers are untrustworthy. Research shows that we naturally sort people into social categories such as race, gender, occupation, and socioeconomic （社會經濟的） classes. Furthermore, we see people as either “us”or “them,”depending on whether they are members of our own groups. In making this distinction, we tend to generalize from a single person to a whole group and to assume that “they,”members of a particular social group different from our own, are all alike. Although stereotypes can help simplify our understanding of the world and may even contain a seed of truth, they are usually overgeneralizations （過度概括）. Research shows that stereotypes can color our judgments of others at an unconscious level.
25.第一印象的重要性
段落大意：第一印象很重要，因為人們很難改變對他人的第一印象，總是試圖用第一印象去解釋他人的行為，並根據第一印象決定對待他人的態度。
In forming impressions of others, people are subject to other biases as well. For example, a great deal of research shows that people are often slow to revise their first impressions of others even when those views are not supported by the evidence. Part of the problem is that once we form an impression of someone, we tend to interpret that person’s later behavior in ways that seem to fit our impression. Another problem is that our first impression of someone may shape the way we treat that person, which, in turn, may influence his or her actual behavior. This process is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy （預言）. In a classic illustration of this phenomenon, in 1968.American psychologists Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson told a group of elementary school teachers that certain students were on the verge of an intellectual growth spurt（迸發）, while in fact, these students were randomly chosen from their classes. By the end of the school year, these designated students, who had received more positive attention from the teachers, actually had higher average test scores than their peers.
26.形成印象的兩大方式
段落大意：人們通過兩大方式形成對他人的印象。有時人們會根據外表、麵部表情或身體語言進行判斷，有時則會通過仔細觀察他人的行為而形成印象。
Research has shown that people form impressions of each other in two ways. Sometimes people make quick and effortless judgments based on others’ physical appearance, facial expressions, or body language. Studies have shown, for example, that people who are physically attractive are perceived to be happy, warm, friendly, successful, confident, and well-adjusted. At other times, however, people form impressions based on a careful observation of a person’s behavior. According to this latter view, people act like amateur （業餘的） scientists, gathering and analyzing behavioral evidence before evaluating others. The explanations for behavior that people come up with are called attributions, and the theory that describes the process is called attribution theory.
27.態度和說服
段落大意：通過說服可以改變人們的態度；說服是人類社會生活的一個組成部分。
Attitudes are relatively enduring beliefs or opinions that predispose （使易接受） people to respond in a positive, negative, or ambivalent way to a person, object, or idea. In particular, social scientists study how people are led to change their attitudes, the process known as persuasion. Persuasion is an integral part of human social life. Many people have a direct interest in knowing how to effectively persuade others; politicians trying to win votes, salespeople and advertisers hawking （推銷） their products, religious leaders seeking converts（皈依者）, trial lawyers arguing before a jury（陪審團）, and fund-raisers seeking donations. Persuasion is neither inherently good nor bad. Whether we see it as beneficial or harmful to individuals depends on whether we approve of the message.
28.說服的兩大方式
段落大意：說服有兩大方式：有力且富有邏輯的論證，以及外表、情感等因素的影響。
Persuasion can occur in two ways. First, as you might expect, people often change their attitudes in response to strong and logical arguments. However, research has shown that people may also be influenced by a speaker’s physical attractiveness, by the arousal（引起） of fear and other emotions, by the reactions of others in the audience, and by other superficial cues（提示）. Researchers have identified three main factors that contribute to the effect of a persuasive communication:the source, the message, and the audience. In other words, what matters in persuasion is who says what to whom.
29.對無私主義的研究
段落大意：無私行為的動機主要來自想要使他人而不是自己受益的願望。對這一話題的研究真正開始於1964年發生在紐約市的一起謀殺案。
Focusing on a brighter side of human nature, many researchers study altruism（無私主義）, helping behavior that is motivated primarily by a desire to benefit a person other than oneself. Interest in this topic began earnestly （認真地） following the 1964.murder of Kitty Genovese in New York City. Thirty-eight of her neighbors, aroused around 3.am by her screams, came to their windows and watched over the next half-hour as her assailant （攻擊者） stabbed （刺） and raped her. Yet none of the neighbors came to her aid or even called the police until after the attack was over. As a result of this shocking event, social psychologists conducted experiments in which they staged different emergencies, varied the conditions, and observed the results. Consistently, these studies revealed that the greater the number of bystanders is, the less likely anyone is to feel responsible and intervene. In emergency situations, ironically （諷刺地）, the presence of other people inhibits helping.
30.行為端正的概念
段落大意：端正的行為指本身善良的行為或符合特定道德標準的行為。
Philosophers have attempted to determine goodness in conduct according to two chief principles, and have considered certain types of conduct either good in themselves or good because they conform to a particular moral standard. The former implies a final value, which is desirable in itself and not merely as a means to an end. In the history of ethics there are three principal standards of conduct, each of which has been proposed as the highest good:happiness or pleasure, duty or obligation, and perfection, the fullest harmonious development of human potential.
31.不同社會環境下的行為
段落大意：在不同的社會環境下，行為端正有著不同的內涵。
Depending on the social setting, the demand for good conduct is the will of a deity （神）, the pattern of nature, or the rule of reason. When the deity is the authority, obedience to the divine （神聖的） commandments in scriptural texts is the accepted standard of conduct. If nature is the authority, conformity to the qualities attributed to human nature is the standard. When reason rules, behavior is expected to result from rational thought.