1、心理學概述
Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals’ daily lives and the treatment of mental illness.
Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the mental function and overt behavior of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive generalizations. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of neuropsychology combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced. Many people associate Psychology with Clinical Psychology which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, Psychology has myriad specialties including:Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Mathematical Psychology, Neuropsychology, and Quantitative Analysis of Behavior, to name only a few.
Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application （as is clinical medicine）, social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely.
2、馬斯洛需求層次金字塔
3、馬斯洛觀點：人的需求層次
In Maslow’s theory, then, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. Needs emerge only when higher-priority needs have been satisfied. By the same token, satisfied needs no longer influence behavior. This point seems worth stressing to managers and administrators, who often mistakenly assume that money and other tangible incentives are the only cures for morale and productivity problems. It may be, however, that the need to participate, to be recognized, to be creative, and to experience a sense of worth are better motivators in an affluent society, where many have already achieved an acceptable measure of freedom from hunger and threats to security and personal safety, and are now driven by higher-order psychological needs.
To further confound the problem of understanding motivation, Maslow points out that motives are not always conscious. In the average person, he believes, they are more often unconscious than conscious—showing the influence on his thinking of Freudian psychologists who have long been concerned with the hidden causes of human behavior.
4、馬斯洛觀點：三大方麵需求
1.Growth needs
Though the deficiency needs may be seen as “basic”, and can be met and neutralized （i.e. they stop being motivators in one’s life）, self-actualization and transcendence are “being” or “growth needs” （also termed “B-needs”）, i.e. they are enduring motivat-ions or drivers of behavior.
2.Cognitive needs
Maslow believes that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs are the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them.
3.Aesthetic needs
Based on Maslow’s beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-actualization. Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer.
5、馬斯洛觀點：需求層次金字塔
This diagram shows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more primitive needs at the bottom. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the four lower levels are grouped together as being associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed growth needs associated with psychological needs. Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met, seeking to satisfy growth needs drives personal growth.
The higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied. Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individual will temporarily reprioritize those needs by focusing attention on the unfulfilled needs, but will not permanently regress to the lower level. For instance, a businessman （at the esteem level） who is diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health （physiological needs）, but will continue to value his work performance （esteem needs） and will likely return to work during periods of remission.
6、馬斯洛觀點：自我實現的人及其七大特征
Maslow writes the following of self-actualizing people:
1.They embrace the facts and realities of the world （including themselves） rather than denying or avoiding them.
2.They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions.
3.They are creative.
4.They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus in their lives.
5.They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life.
6.They have a system of morality that is fully internalized and independent of external authority.
7.They have discernment and are able to view all things in an objective manner.
In short, self-actualization is reaching one’s fullest potential.
7、馬斯洛觀點：自我實現之人的四大特征
According to Maslow, the tendencies of self-actualizing people are as follows:
1.Awareness
efficient perception of reality
freshness of appreciation
peak experiences
ethical awareness
2.Honesty
philosophical sense of humor
social interest
deep interpersonal relationships
democratic character structure
3.Freedom
need for solitude
autonomous, independent
creativity, originality
spontaneous
4.Trust
problem centered
acceptance of self, others, nature
resistance to enculturation—identity with humanity
8、馬斯洛需求層次理論I：第一層次需求：生理需求
Physiological needs are the basic animal needs for such things as food, warmth, shelter, sex, water, and other body needs. If a person is hungry or thirsty or his body is chemically unbalanced, all of his energies turn toward remedying these deficiencies, and other needs remain inactive. Maslow explains that, “Anyone who attempts to make an emergency picture into a typical one, and who will measure all of man’s goals and desires by his behavior during extreme physiological deprivation, is certainly blind to many things. It is quite true that man lives by bread alone—when there is no bread.”
The physiological needs of the organism （those enabling homeostasis） take first precedence. These consist mainly of:
1.Excretion
2.Eating
3.Sex
4.Drinking
5.Sleeping
6.Shelter
7.Warmth
If some needs are not fulfilled, a human’s physiological needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can control thoughts and behaviors, and can cause people to feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.
9、馬斯洛需求層次理論II：第二層次需求：安全需求
With his physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety needs take over and dominate his behavior. These needs have to do with man’s yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent, and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.
For the most part physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in our affluent and relatively lawful society. The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream—the poor, the disadvantaged, and members of minority groups. If frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival:obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.
Safety needs include:
1.Personal security from crime
2.Security against company lay-offs
3.Health and well-being
4.Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
10、馬斯洛需求層次理論III：第三層次需求：社會情感需求
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow’s hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:friendship, sexual intimacy, having a supportive and communicative family.
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group （such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs） or small social connections （family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants）. They need to love and be loved （sexually and non-sexually） by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure, e.g. an anorexic ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of belonging.
11、馬斯洛需求層次理論IV：第四層次需求：尊重需求
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem, inferiority complexes. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. However, confidence, competence and achievement only need one person and everyone else is inconsequential to one’s own success. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
12、馬斯洛需求層次理論V：第五層次需求：自我實現需求
Self-actualization is the instinctual need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.
In Maslow’s scheme, the final stage of psychological development comes when the individual feels assured that his physiological, security, affiliation and affection, self-respect, and recognition needs have been satisfied. As these become dormant, he becomes filled with a desire to realize all of his potential for being an effective, creative, mature human being. “What a man can be, he must be”, is the way Maslow expresses it.
13、馬斯洛需求層次理論不是固定模式
Maslow’s need hierarchy is set forth as a general proposition and does not imply that everyone’s needs follow the same rigid pattern. For some people, self-esteem seems to be a stronger motivation than love. Mussolini, for example, alienated his closest friends by undertaking reckless military adventures to achieve status as a conqueror. （This example can also be used to illustrate the means-to-an-end dilemma of human motivation. That is, Mussolini may have reached for status as a means to gaining the affection of Adolf Hitler. More will be said about this problem later.） For some people, the need to create is often a stronger motivation than the need for food and safety. Thus, the artist living in poverty is a classic example of reversing the standard hierarchy of needs. Similarly, persons who have suffered hunger or some other deprivation for protracted periods may live happily for the rest of their lives if only they can get enough of what they lacked. In this case, the level of aspiration may have become permanently lowered and the higher-order, less prepotent needs may never become active. There are also cases of people’s martyring themselves for causes and suffering all kinds of deprivations, particularly in the physiological, safety, and sometimes social categories, to achieve their goals.
14、MBTI（Myers-Briggs Type Indicator）個性理論發展
In the early 1940s, Isabel Briggs Myers and Katherine Cook Briggs began developing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to make Carl Jung’s theory of human personality understandable and useful in everyday life. The MBTI is based on Jung’s ideas about perception and judgment. The essence of the theory is that much seemingly random variation in behavior is actually quite orderly and consistent, being due to basic differences in the way individuals prefer to use their perception and judgment. Perception involves all the ways of becoming aware of things, people, happenings, or ideas. Judgment involves all the ways of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived.
The main aim of the MBTI is to identify from self-report, the basic preferences of people in regard to perception and judgment, so that the effects of each preference, singly and in combination, can be established by research and put to practical use. If people differ systematically in what they perceive and in how they reach conclusions, then it is only reasonable for them to differ correspondingly in their reactions, interests, values, motivations, and skills.
15、MBTI個性理論的核心
At the heart of MBTI use is the belief that individuals have naturally occurring preferences for certain attitudes and approaches to the world as well as for certain modes of perceiving it and making judgments or decisions pertaining to it. These preferences should not be equated with abilities. Identifying one’s own preferences can be an aid in seeking work, relationships and so forth, whereby what comes most naturally to the person will be the very thing that will be the most demanded, desirable, appropriated, or appreciated. Understanding other persons’ preferences can aid in communication and make working or living together more effective and satisfying.