正文 第16章 寫作論證論據素材庫心理類(2 / 3)

16、MBTI個性理論的用途

The MBTI model is useful for a wide range of applications, including: interpersonal skills development, self-awareness, career counseling, psychotherapy, team building and many other areas. However, as with all personality questionnaires, the results can be wrong. All questionnaires recognized by the psychological establishments have reliability and validity research, which shows how wrong on average they can be. The questionnaire can provide valuable information, but the real value of the Myers-Briggs model of personality is in deciding your Myers-Briggs type for yourself. Everyone’s personality reflects all aspects of the Myers-Briggs model. You use extroversion as well as introversion, sensing as well as intuition, thinking as well as feeling, and judgment as well as perception. However, the Myers Briggs model implies that each person naturally tends to choose, where the opportunity allows, one of each of the four preferences, though the strength of that preference may vary. The letters that represent your preferences are combined to produce your Myers Briggs-type, such as ENTJ.

17、MBTI個性理論四大要素

The MBTI consists of four separate indices which direct the use of perception and judgment. The Myers-Briggs model of personality is based on four preferences. These preferences affect what people do in any situation and how they draw conclusions about what they perceive. The preferences are:

1.Where is your primary source of energy? (Introversion/Extroversion)

2.How do you prefer to take in information? (Sensing/Intuition)

3.How do you prefer to make decisions? (Thinking/Feeling)

4.How do you prefer to organize your life? (Judging/Perceiving)

Combining these four preferences produces a personality type, such as ENFP (Extroversion, Intuition, Feeling, and Perceiving) or ISTJ (Introversion, Sensing, Thinking, and Judging).

18、MBTI個性理論四大要素I:內向/外向

Where is your primary source of energy? Is it from the outer world of activity and spoken words or from the inner world of thoughts and emotions? If it is from the outer world of activity or words, it is called extroversion, denoted by the letter E. If it is from the inner world of contemplation, or thoughts, it is called introversion, denoted by the letter I. During each day, people will undoubtedly spend time spontaneously doing or saying things, as well as retreating into the inner world of contemplation and thought. If a person’s work day has involved much interaction with the world, even the clearest extrovert may feel at the end of the day that they want to be left alone with their thoughts. Conversely, if an introvert has been working in isolation all day, they may feel that they need to party in the evening to restore some balance. All individuals need a particular balance of both introversion and extroversion.

19、MBTI個性理論四大要素II:感覺/直覺

How do you prefer to take in information? Do you prefer in the form of facts and details or in the form of patterns and overviews? If it is in the form of facts or details, it is called sensing, denoted by the letter S. If it is in the form of patterns or overviews, it is called intuition, denoted by the letter N (N is used to avoid confusion with introversion). The term sensing is used because information is taken in primarily by way of the senses. The term intuition is used because information is perceived primarily in an intuitive fashion. Sensing tends to be interested in concrete reality, focusing on the present, and seeing what is, rather than what might be. At an extreme, sensing can have its feet so well and truly on the ground that it misses out on possibilities for the future. The preference for intuition gives a greater emphasis on insight and the future, focusing on what might be, rather than what is. At an extreme, intuition can focus so much on possibilities that it loses touch with current realities. Sensing tends to communicate in direct ways, whilst intuition prefers to communicate in creative ways.

20、MBTI個性理論四大要素III:理性/感性

How do you prefer to make decisions? Do you prefer on the basis of logic and objective considerations or on the basis of personal values? If it is on the basis of logic and objective considerations, it is called thinking, denoted by the letter T. If it is on the basis of personal values, it is called feeling, denoted by the letter F.

21、MBTI個性理論四大要素IV:判斷/感知

How do you prefer to organize your life? Do you prefer in a structured way, making decisions and knowing where you stand or in a flexible way, discovering life as you go along? If it is in a structured way, making decisions and knowing where you stand, then it is called judgment. If it is in a flexible way, discovering life as you go along—this is called perception. Some people whose preference is judgment prefer, in their lifestyle, to make decisions. This means that they prefer to make decisions about what to do, where to go, what to say, and so on. As a result of these decisions, their lifestyle appears organized. Some people whose preference is perception prefer, in their lifestyle, to learn or experience new things. This means that they prefer to find out more, rather than making decisions, and are more comfortable when they keep their options open. As a result of this openness, they can appear flexible.

22、動機及四大動機理論

Motivation explains why people behave as they do. Some scientists view motivation as the factor that determines behavior, as expressed in the phrase all behavior is motivated. Other scientists focus on two certain aspects of motivated behavior, excitement or exhilaration of behavior, which is motivation, arouses an organism and causes it to act, and the direction of behavior, which is lead by habits, skills, abilities and structural features.

There are four theories of motivation: Instinct theory, Sociobiology, Drive-reduction theory and Incentive theory.

23、四大動機理論I:本能理論

Instinct is behavior that is inherited rather than learned. Instinct is an inborn tendency/ biological force that dominates behavior. Instincts are universal in expression and universal in a species. Instinct is viewed as in-built with regards to a baby’s attachment to its parents or caregivers. The reason for this development is that babies stay close to their parents because they are provided with protection.

Human instincts are more flexible and more open to learning experiences than those of other species. Just like the imprinting of baby geese, so do human babies attach to his/her parents after many hours of interaction. An example of instinctual behavior is that all ants build anthills in the same way, even when they are not raised together, then the anthill building behavior is instinctual and not a learned response. Sex in humans is also instinctual. We are not born with the desire to engage in sexual activities, but as we reach puberty, there is a need for sexual stimulation. Even though we might not know what to do, it is instinctual. But, instincts only describe behavior; they do not explain why a person engages in behavior.

24、四大動機理論II:生物社會學理論

Sociobiology is the study of the biological basis for the social behavior of humans and other animals. Sociobiologists try to ascertain the function of various types of behavior in the life of an animal. Sociobiology is based on the theory that the central process of life is the struggle of genes to reproduce themselves. Theorists believe that natural preference favors behavior that maximizes reproductive attainment—transmitting genes to the next generation. According to this theory, an organism inherits inclinations to develop certain types of behavior, and these behavior patterns increase an organism’s chances of transferring its genes to the next generation. It is believed that an organism can transmit its genes on, not only by reproducing but also by helping related organisms survive and reproduce.

An example of this would be a bee stinging an intruder bee, in order to protect the life and genes of the queen bee (an organism sacrificing their life, for others, therefore passing on its genes). A human’s will, for sacrificing their life for a relative or someone they know, is much stronger than that of sacrificing their life for someone they do not know. A lady will not usually sacrifice her life by running across the road to save a child, (that she does not know), in traffic, whereas if it were her own child, she would sacrifice her life in order to save her child’s life and to carry on the genes.

There are ongoing debates about sociobiology and its relevance to human motivation. Some theorists believe that sociobiologists overestimate the influence of biology and underestimate the influence of culture. In the African culture, African men consider African women with large buttocks appealing, which may be viewed as unattractive in other cultures.

25、四大動機理論Ⅲ:驅動理論

A drive is defined as an observation that organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, a state of physiological equilibrium/stability. A drive assists an organism in alleviating inner tension. For example, drinking alleviates thirst. Drive theory explains why people eat, sleep, seek pleasure, avoid pain and engage in sex.

There is a distinction between Primary and Secondary drives. Primary drives are the most basic, inborn needs in our psychological systems and secondary drives, also known as learned motives, are learned through association with the reduction of primary drives. It is understood that most drive theories are unlearned, biological drives, which progressively develop a bigger set of appropriate drives through learning.

The sleep motive is an example of drive theory. If a person goes without sleep, for quite a while, they begin to experience some discomfort, tiredness, which is an internal tension and a drive motivates you to obtain sleep. Sleeping reduces the drive and restores physiological balance. But drive theories can not explain all facets of human motivation.

26、四大動機理論Ⅳ:激勵理論

Incentive theory is striving towards attaining external goals. Incentive theorists believe that the source of motivation is external, in the environment. Incentives pull you to act, whereas drives push you to act. Incentive theory is not related to the principle of homeostasis, it emphasizes environmental factors.

Not everyone can always achieve his or her desired goals. Expectancy-value models explain one’s motivation to persevere in two ways, the merit of the incentive, if it appeals to you, and the probability of one’s chances of attaining the incentive. Gambling at a casino is an example of incentive. Your motivation to gamble will depend on the amount of money you could win and on your chances of winning. To draw people to gamble, large amounts of money are offered as prize, making the incentive value high.

Incentives can be both positive and negative. A positive incentive is a pupil knowing that he/she will receive a reward if he/she obtain a good result for an exam, and a negative incentive is a pupil knowing that if he/she fail the exam, he/she will be deprived of something he/she value.

Through the different theories of motivation we can see that motivators can be internal and external. Some psychologists believe that happenings, which we no longer remember, can still affect our lives and can influence behavior motives.

27、完整心理學

How people perceive a well-organized pattern or whole, instead of many separate parts, is a topic of interest in Gestalt psychology. According to Gestalt psychologists, the whole is different than the sum of its parts. Gestalt is a German word—meaning configuration or pattern.

There are a number of principles by which people organize isolated parts of a visual stimulus into groups or whole objects. There are five main laws of grouping: proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and common fate. A sixth law, that of simplicity, encompasses all of these laws. Although most often applied to visual perception, the Gestalt laws also apply to perception in other senses. When we listen to music, for example, we do not hear a series of disconnected or random tones. We interpret the music as a whole, relating the sounds to each other based on how similar they are in pitch, how close together they are in time, and other factors. We can perceive melodies, patterns, and form in music. When a song is transposed to another key, we still recognize it, even though all of the notes have changed.

1.Proximity: The law of proximity states that the closer objects are to one another, the more likely we are to mentally group them together

2.Similarity: The law of similarity leads us to link together parts of the visual field that are similar in color, lightness, texture, shape, or any other quality

3.Continuity: The law of continuity leads us to see a line as continuing in a particular direction, rather than making an abrupt turn

4.Closure: According to the law of closure, we prefer complete forms to incomplete forms. This tendency allows us to perceive whole objects from incomplete and imperfect forms.

5.Common fate: The law of common fate leads us to group together objects that move in the same direction.

6.Simplicity: Central to the approach of Gestalt psychologists is the law of simplicity. This general notion, which encompasses all other Gestalt laws, states that people intuitively prefer the simplest, most stable possible organizations. Not only does perception involve organization and grouping, it also involves distinguishing an object from its surroundings. Notice that once you perceive an object, the area around that object becomes the background.

28、弗洛伊德的人格理論

The development of gender roles in different forms of feminism gives us a revealing overview of Freud’s personality theory. It is relatively easy, however, to find oneself torn between open-heartedly going along with Freud’s view of personality as a dynamic system of psychological energy which is a very complex, yet insightful approach to the development of personality. The nature of the id, ego, and superego, and the psychosexual stages that these three structures focus on during a course of one’s development, give a plethora of reasons to believe in the existence of a critical period in gender development. Freud’s theory suggests that the way in which the id, ego, and superego evolve and the way in which they proliferate in the first six years of a child’s life will influence the child’s emotional attachment to his/her parent of the same sex and, as consequence, the child’s gender identification. It is not Freud’s belief about the id, ego, and superego that raises our eyebrow, but rather his rigid sex-based generalization of gender development. However, Freud’s generalization seems to underestimate the impact of genetics and broader social cues, and to overestimate children’s cognitive capabilities during the maturing stage and the impact of the child-parent relationship on children’s gender development.

29、希波克拉底觀點:四大性格類型

In the middle of the 15th century B.C.E., Hippocrates explained the four temperaments in terms of dominant humors in the body: melancholic, sanguine, phlegmatic, or choleric. The melancholic, he claimed, was dominated by yellow bile in the kidneys, the sanguine by humors in the blood, the phlegmatic by phlegm, and the choleric by the black bile of the liver. Hippocrates was simply adding to the ancient Greek insight that all things reduced to earth, air, water and fire. Each of the four elements had its dualities: hot/cold and dry/moist. A person’s physical, psychological, and moral qualities could easily be understood by his/ner temperament, his/ner dominant humors, the four basic elements, or whether he/she was hot and wet or cold and dry. The ancient personality type indicator worked for over one thousand years. Today, most of us have abandoned Hippocrates’ personality scheme because we do not find it to have any meaningful use.